test 2 history and systems

What were the goals of Structuralism (the what, how and why)?

• focused on mental elements. Mechanically linked through association. Analyze consciousness into its component parts and determine its structure. what- is learned by introspection (cataloging basic mental elements that make up conscious experience) how- addresses the way that the elements combined why- involves neurological correlates of mental events (Titchener only sought to describe mental experience or the structure of the mind) -Titchner focused on finding the ELEMENTS and STRUCTURE of consciousness

According to Titchener, what is the proper subject matter for psychology? How does it differ from the subject matter of other sciences?

-conscious experience (as that experience is dependent on the person who is actually experiencing) -other science: independent of experiencing persons (e.g., temperate) -temperature exists outside of the person experiencing it

How did Titchener view the mind? What was consciousness?

-Titchner focused on mental elements -the mental elements were mechanically linked through association -he analyzed consciousness into its component parts and determined its structure -Consciousness was the sum of our experiences as they exist at a given time

Describe the 3 problems for psychology related to structuralism to be studied?

-reduce conscious processes to simplest components -determine by which elements are associated -connect the elements with their physiological conditions

Describe Titchener's experimental method?

-experiment=an observation "that can be repeated, isolated, varied" -frequent repetition -strict isolation (control) -vary observations widely

Describe Titchener's brand of introspection. How did this differ from Wundt's?

-Titchner used systematic experimental introspection (based on Kulpe) -It differed from Wundt's introspection because it was more complicated and required more of the subject (observer) than Wundt because it used TRAINED observers -It involved detailed, qualitative, subjective reports of mental processes -required subjects to describe the basic, raw, elemental mental experiences -Titchner wanted subjects to report on sensations, not perceptions -The purpose of Titchner's introspection was to discover atoms of the mind -Titchener's introspection had a mechanistic view -subjects were impartial, detached, and used mechanical recording instruments -Titchner was an Empiricist, he believed all human knowledge is derived from human experience -observations were repeated, isolated, and varied

Why did he refer to observers as "reagents"?

-This term was used to describe introspective observers -They had a mechanistic and materialistic view -observers liked instruments that passively record events -Think about how in a chemical reaction, the reagent is the chemical you add to the mix to find the answers

What is the stimulus error? Why is this a no-no for observers?

-A stimulus error is when the subject responds with the name of the object they are reporting on, instead of the elemental aspects for the stimulus -This is a no-no for observers because Titchner wanted subjects to focus on the mental process, not the object -example: participant says "this is a duck" instead of "this has feathers and a beak"

In terms of empiricism, rationalism, mechanism, and materialism, how would you characterize Titchener's brand of psychology?

-Titchner and rationalism: Titchner was NOT a rationalist -Titchner and Empiricism: Titchner believed in empiricism because he thought that all mental content comes from experience, experience is sensations -Titchner and Mechanism: Tithcner agreed with mechanism (I think) -Titchner and materialism: Titchner agreed with materialism (I think)

How did Titchener define consciousness?

the sum of our experiences as they exist at a given time

How did Titchener define the mind?

the sum of our experiences accumulated over time

Who were the Titchener's Experimentalists?

-They were a group of psychologist from Cornell, Yale, Clark, Michigan, and Princeton that met regularly to discuss their work -Titchener selected the topics and ran their meetings -rule: no women allowed -later became the "Society of experimental psychologists

Describe the paradoxical views of Titchener regarding the place of women in psychology. Did he act to assist them in their careers or discriminate against them?

-Titchner did not allow women into his "Experimentalists" -Ladd-Franklin challenged titchner's exclusion of women by trying to sneak into of meeting of the Experimentalists, but Titchner kicked her out -Titchner's reason for refusing to allow women into her group was that women were too pure to smoke -His exclusionary policy was paradoxical because he was the graduate advisor to most women psychologists at the time -He did advance the careers of many women in psychology -⅓ of his students were women -Titchner accepted women into his graduate program at Harvard when Comlumbia did not -More women completed doctoral degrees with Titchner than with any other male psychologist of the time Titchner favors hiring women faculty

Who was the first woman to receive a Ph.D. in Psychology?

Margaret Floy Washburn

What were the 3 elementary states of consciousness according to Titchener?

-sensations (5 senses) -images (imaginary) -affective states (emotions and actions)

How many elements of consciousness did Titchener discover?

44,000

What 4 attributes did he use to categorize the 3 elementary states of consciousness?

-quality -intensity -duration -clearness

Why is it important to stress that Wundt's system is not structuralism?

because Wundt focused on voluntarism and Titchner focused on structuralism

What were the primary criticisms of Structuralism?

-by looking at the elements and structure, structuralism failed to capture -the "wholeness" of consciousness experience can't be captured by a combination of elements -the definition of psychology was too narrow (excluded children and animals) -excluded application of psychology to real-world problems

What were the specific criticisms of Titchener's Introspection?

-Titchner couldn't give an exact meaning to introspection -artificial and sterile -The observer is always a source of error because Titchner's introspection relied on subjective reports -observation alters conscious experience -the mind isn't capable of studying itself -Training could have biased observations -created a special vocabulary -precise task of trained observer is unclear/unknown -measurements were unreliable -retrospection (consciousness is dynamic)

What is the legacy of Structuralism? How did it influence modern Psychology?

-Structuralism clearly defined the subject matter of psychology: conscious experience -research methods -based on observation, experimentation, and measurement -rigorous experimentation -attempted to create a more scientific approach to the method of introspection -we still use the introspection method today even though there are problems with it -structuralism was a catalyst for other schools of though -served as a point of criticism -scientific advances need something to oppose -influence still felt on cognitive psychology today

Where is Titchener's brain today?

At the Cornell Wilder Brain collection because he donated it

What aspects of the social, intellectual and cultural climate created a situation where the ideas of Darwin and the Functionalists would be accepted and embraced?

-There was an orangutan named Jenny who they dressed up like a child and it acted like a child -Social evolution due to the industrial revolution -structure built on the belief that world was made for the 1st born -revolution had impacts socially and industrially -led to a growing dominance of science -Scientists learning more about the species that inhabit the earth (biology) -Centuries of accepting biblical explanations leaves questions: -How could Noah fit so many species into the arc? -Examples like Childlike Jenny the orangutan show that animals were similar to human beings -Discovery of fossils that didn't match living species

What are the key components of Darwin's theory of evolution?

-Variation among member of a species -Spontaneous variability is inheritable

What is Natural Selection?

-failure to adapt leads to failure to survive this is NOT survival of the fittest though -offspring show variation among themselves -some offspring have advantageous qualities to a higher degree than their parents -evidence of human evolution from lower forms of life -emphasized similarity between animal and human processes -it's about TRAITS BEING PASSED DOWN TO OFFSPRING

What was the significance of the finches on the Galapagos Islands?

-He went on a voyage on the HMS Beagle to the galapagos islands -he gathered data on finches -Their beaks adapted to their environment based on what they had to eat -different types of beaks based on climate/environment -examples: parrot beak, grasping beak, probing beak, crushing beak

What types of struggles did Darwin face?

Darwin faced an internal conflict between his scientific and religious beliefs

What were Darwin's most important books?

On the Origin of Species (1859) The Descent of Man (1871) The expression of emotions in Man and Animals (1872) A Biographical Sketch of an Infant (1877)

What did Darwin base his theory on? What separated Darwin's theory of evolution from Alfred Russell Wallace's?

-darwin based his theory on what he saw in the finches. -Darwin argued that human evolution could be explained by natural selection, with sexual selection as a significant supplementary principle. Wallace always had doubts about sexual selection, and ultimately concluded that natural selection alone was insufficient to account for a set of uniquely human characteristics.

What influence did Darwin's work have on Psychology?

-continuity in mental functioning between humans and lower animals -implied study of animal behavior vital to understanding human behavior -changed subject matter from elements to functions of consciousness -goal to study how organism functioned in adapting -methods and techniques broadened in scope -increased on individual differences

What is Social Darwinism?

-Social darwinism is "survival of the fittest" -the application of theory of evolution to human and society -"struggle for existence" -evolution's purpose is to approximate perfection -individualism and Laissez-faire economy -the belief that failure to adapt will lead to perishing

How did Social Darwinism influence American Psychology?

social darwinism fits with U.S. capitalism, individualistic spirit, self-sufficientcy, and independence

Who coined the term "survival of the fittest"? How does this differ from Darwin's idea of natural selection?

-Herbert Spencer coined the term survival of the fittest -the difference between social darwinism and natural selection is that natural selection is Darwin's theory that adaptations in a species occur over time and survival of the fittest is the belief that the living species that is the strongest has the most potential to survive -natural section is about adaptations being passed down, while survival of the fittest is about moving toward the "perfect human"

Describe the Spencer-Bain Principle.

the condition that the frequency or probability of some behavior increases if it is followed by a pleasurable event and decreases if it is followed by a painful event

Why did American capitalists embrace Social Darwinism?

capitalism and social darwinism are similar in that they are both about becoming the strongest

How did Galton shape the study of individual differences?

-he focused on studying individual differences in human abilities -he was very interested in studying differences in intelligence -function of sensory discrimination and reaction time to sensory stimuli -he believed if you react faster and more accurately, you are more intelligent

What was Galton's position on scientific eminence? (superiority)

-Galton believed eminent men have eminent sons -he was interested in whether intelligence was hereditary -he founded eugenics

Describe Galton's use of twins to study individual differences.

Galton conducted the 1st twin study

What was Galton's role in the nature vs. nurture debate?

Galton believed that his family studies and twin studies pointed to nature trumping nurture when it came to traits such as criminality and intelligence, and so he envisioned eugenics as a scientifically-guided social program which would encourage more intelligent and less criminal people to marry and breed more

How did Galton shape the study of mental inheritance?

-interested in whether intelligence was hereditary -eminent men have eminent sons -founded eugenics -conducted 1st twin study

How did Galton define intelligence?

-Galton defined intelligence in terms of sensory capabilities -Galton wanted to define the range of human capacities of the British population and determine its collective resources

What was Galton's influence on the use of statistical methods?

-Galton applied statistical methods to mental characteristics -developed "mean" and "standard deviation" -produced correlation measure -Pearson's "r" -developed the concept of "regression to the mean" -Galton conducted mental tests

What is Eugenics and how was Galton involved in this movement?

-Eugenics is a pseudo-science that aims to improve the genetic quality of the human population -Galton is considered the father of the eugenics movement -Galton was the honorary president of the Eugenics education Society -Galton stated "There exists a sentiment, for the most part quite unreasonable, against the gradual extinction of an inferior race"

What influence did Galton have on the field of Psychology?

-Galton developed the first intelligence tests (although they was not referred to as intelligence tests until later)

What were the methods used by Romanes to study animal intelligence? Were these methods considered rigorous and scientific?

-anecdotal method (observing animals) and introspection by analogy (asking "what would I think if i was doing this?") -Romanes was criticized for his anecdotal method because it was not considered rigorous of scientific, he doesn't actually know what animals are thinking he's just projecting

What was the contribution of Romanes work on animal intelligence?

-he formalized and systematized the study of animal intelligence -he developed the "mental ladder" on which he ordered animals in terms of mental functioning

How did Romanes's work on animal intelligence influence the work of other Psychologists?

Romanes's work influenced C. Loyd Morgan's work because Morgan thought Romanes was thinking too highly of animals and that they were not actually as smart as Romanes thought they were

What is anthropomorphism and why does it present a problem for the work of George Romanes.

-it's humanizing animals -it was a problem because Romanes relied to heavily on this concept

What is the law of parsimony?

the scientific principle that things are usually connected or behave in the simplest way, especially with reference to evolutionary pathways

How specifically did the law of parsimony relate to the work of Romanes?

romanes belived animals were more smart than they actually were, the law of parsimony refutes romanes's beliefs

How did the theory of evolution shape the study of animal psychology?

darwin's theory led to a focus on animal psychology, based on the idea that no sharp distinction exists between humans and animals -increased interest in how animals function -^which may reveal how humans function

Functionalism was a protest against structuralism. How do the two differ?

-Structuralism studied the contents of the mind through the use of lab experiments and introspection. -Functionalism, contrastingly, was more interested in using direct observation and fieldwork in order to better understand the adaptive function -functionalism was all about pragmatism

How did the goals of Structuralism differ from the goals of Functionalism?

-Structuralism suggests that the goal of psychology is to study the STRUCTURE of the mind and consciousness -Functionalism, contrastingly, suggests that understanding the PURPOSE of the mind and consciousness is the goal of psychology

How did Darwin's theory influence the central tenets of Functionalism?

-Dawin's theory of natural selection was the critical component of influencing functionalism. Functionalism was created to oppose the concept of structuralism. Functionalism is the study of how the mind functions and how the organism uses it in the environment, -Darwin influences functionalism by saying an organism adapts to their environment to survive as the physical characteristics of animals and humans evolved because they are helpful and functional.

How did James define the goal of psychology?

to study people as they adapt

How did James' view of consciousness differ from Wundt's view?

-Wundt believed in reductionism, that consciousness could be broken down into its most basic elements without sacrificing any of the properties of the whole -James's view was that consciousness was like a flow that was constantly changing -he treats psychology as a biological science -emphasizes non rational aspects of human nature -believes intellect operates under physiological influences of the body -beliefs determined by emotions factors -reasons and concept formation affected by wants and needs -believes in radical empiricism-all consistently reported aspects of human experience are worthy of study

According to James, what was the purpose of consciousness?

-biological utility -enables one to adapt -necessary for survival

Explain William James' concept of the stream of consciousness?

-"you can never touch the same stream twice" -consciousness is a continuous flow

What was James' position on emotions?

James believed in the James-Lange theory

Describe the James-Lange theory?

-physical arousal/behavioral response precedes emotion -see a bear, run away, feel fear -emotions are caused by our interpretations of physiological and behavioral responses -example: "i'm afraid because i'm running", "I watch a sad movie, I cry, so I'm sad"

According to James, what were habits and what were their implications for social behavior?

-Habits are learned patterns of behavior -new instinct-like behaviors -example: making the same turn when you're passing school even if you are going somewhere else -repetitive action increases plasticity of neural matter -become easier to perform -requires less conscious attention -foundation for studying conditioning (lays the foundation for behavioral psych)

William James was the first psychologist to discuss the "self". What was his view on the self?

-empirical self ("me" of personality) -3 components to the imperial self -material self-everything material a person calls his/her own (car, pet, house) -social self- the self as known by others (your reputation) -spiritual self- person's states of consciousness -Self as knower-the aspect of the self that does the knowing (the "I" of personality) -self-esteem=(success divided by pretentious)

Where did William James stand on free will?

-James studied medicine and religion (like most early psychologists) -James believed in free will -"My first act of free will, is the belief in free will"

What types of discrimination did women face in the early days of Psychology?

-the zeitgeist was that women shouldn't be in academics -myth of inferiority of women -variability hypothesis (which was disproved) -said that men show a wider range and variation of physical and mental development than women -and that women are more average

Describe the experience of Mary Whiton Calkins in her quest for a doctoral degree from Harvard? How does this reflect the Zeitgeist of the times with respect to the treatment of women?

-She completed all of her work for that doctoral degree but Harvard never awarded her a PhD and they STILL refuse to grant her a degree even posthumously -this reflects the zeitgeist of the times because people believed women didn't belong in academia

How did Helen Bradford Thompson Woolley examine the belief that women were less intellectually gifted than men?

-she gave a battery of tests to men and women (motor ability, sensory thresholds, intellectual abilities, personality -she found no sex difference in emotional functioning -only small nonsignificant differences in intellectual ability -women were slightly SUPERIOR to men in memory and sensory perception -she attributes this to social factors (women weren't educating their daughters)

What is the variability hypothesis?

-said that men show a wider range -and variation of physical and mental development than women and that women are more average

What did Leta Stetter Hollingworth's research on the variability hypothesis show?

-her extensive research refuted the variability hypothesis -showed menstrual cycles were not related to performance deficits in perceptual and motor skills or intellectual abilities -she challenged the concept of an innate mothering instinct -suggested mothering was a function of social and cultural attitudes rather than biological factors

How did Dewey's work protest structuralism?

He believed you need to study structure IN RELATION to function and NOT SEPARATELY

How did Dewey's work set the stage for behaviorism?

-He believed in the "reflex arc" and said that the brain could not be divided into sensorimotor elements-stream of behavior (automatic kick, not in stages) -what serves as "stimulus" and what as "response" depends on how one considers the situation -Consciousness cannot be analyzed meaningfully into elements -behavior should be treated in terms of its significance to the organism in adapting to environment -consciousness results in appropriate responses for survival

What influence did Dewey have on education?

-he was an education reformer -wanted to apply psychology to children -he was one of (if not the first) educational psychologist

According to Angell, what were functionalism's three major themes?

-functional psychology interested in mental operations -how a mental process operates -what it accomplishes -under what conditions -mental processes mediate between the needs of the organism and the environment -fundamental utilities of consciousness are for adaptation and survival -The mind and body cannot be separated and act as a unit for survival (thay act together!)

What did Angell see as the primary goal of psychology?

to study how the mind assists the organism in adjusting to its environment

How did Angell define functionalism?

-the function of consciousness -improve the organism's adaptation to the environment

What did Carr see as the primary goal of Psychology?

-to study mental activity-processes such as memory, perception, feeling, imagination, judgment and will -interested in function of mental activity -to acquire, fixate, retain, organize, and evaluate -functionalist concern for the learning process -to use experiences to determine one's actions

What contributions did Carr make to studying animal behavior? What was the Kerplunk experiment?

-Carr was devoted to studies of animal cognition -the Kerplunk experiment was a famous stimulus and response experiment conducted on rats that demonstrated the ability to turn voluntary motor responses into conditioned responses -After running a maze over and over, the rats began to run faster and faster. The the maze BECAME A ROUTINE WITH AUTOMATIC BEHAVIORS -If the maze was shortened, the rats would run into the wall making a Kerplunk sound. The rats ran full speed passing up the food that had been moved closer -If lengthened, they would stop at the point where the food had been and sniff and sometimes not continue to the end where the food was -you learn something, it's changed, you have to re-adapt

What were functionalism's contributions to psychology?

-advanced research on animal behavior -incorporated studies of infants, children, and people with mental diabilities -variety of methods including introspection, physiological, mental tests, questionaires, objective descriptions of behavior (instead of only introspection, we now have a variety of methods) -Emphasis on application of psychology to solving practical problems

What happened to functionalism?

functionalism was absorbed into psychology, so unlive structuralism, it didn't die

What aspects of the American zeitgeist provided a climate for the development of Applied Psychology?

Drug bust with Coca Cola (Harry Hollingworth double blind study). 1800-1900: Rapid growth of Psych research and practice in US. 1893 Chicago World's Fair put Psychology on display with research instruments and demonstration testing lab. America embraced Psychology.

Applied fields

psychological testing (SAT, ACT), education, business, Criminal Justice, Mental Health Clinics

Applied Psychology (economic influences)

focuses both on scientific rigor and practical utility of Psychology. Limited employment in universities. Hollingworth showed psych can apply to advertising. Need to develop the value of Psych and psychologists' income

G. Stanley Hall

"Psychology needs to make its influence felt outside of the university." Founder of the Journal of Applied Psychology (key journal in I/O Psych). earned 1st American doctoral degree (from Harvard). Began first experimental psych lab in US, a founder and the 1st President of the APA (American Psychological Association)

Recapitulation Theory

Hall's theory that psychological development of children repeats the history of the human race (evolving from savage to rational adult).

How did Hall contribute to the study of child psych?

Grandfather of developmental psych. One of first to study children, Wundt and Titchner didn't.

What was Cattell's contribution to psychology?

He coined the term "mental test." Launched the journal: Psychological Review. 1st US student to earn PhD under Wundt. First psych prof @ UPenn. Practical, test-oriented approach. Emphasized statistics (US studies began to focus on large subject groups)

Describe Cattell's research on individual differences? What were his findings? How did this relate to Galton's work?

Had intense interest in individual differences. Intelligence related to sensory activity (how fast you process things). Large scale study to predict student performance: valid tests make differential predictions about how individuals will perform on tasks requiring intelligence. Found the tests were uncorrelated with each other and with student performance. Cattell adapted Galton's approach to the study of individual differences taking it into the field of mental testing. Whereas Galton studied physical differences and reaction time of individuals, Cattell devised his own tests to measure mental abilities of his student subjects.

Discuss PsychCorp -- the consultation company Cattell founded?

The Psychological Corporation (I/O testing and consulting firm). Founded after dismissal from Columbia. 1939 published the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scales (continues to be industry leader today)

Why do some say that Cattell was the "grandfather of behaviorism?"

Gifted 600 shares of PsychCorp to APA to support reseach and development of science/application of psych. Fund is now worth 2.6million.

What influences led to intelligence testing?

Describe Binet and Simon's contribution to intelligence testing

French believed everyone can learn and commissioned to study learning abilities of students. Binet and Simon constructed a test of intelligence focused on mental abilities (attention and memory) to identify children who needed assistance. Mental age determined by tasks accomplished and associated age. KNOW 1905 AS FIRST INTELLIGENCE TEST INVENTION YEAR. There were specific tasks associated with each age (3-13)

Who developed the metric of IQ? What is IQ and how is it calculated?

William Stern. Mental age/chronological age. Shows if you're on track, smarter, or below average intelligence for age.

Goddard translated the Binet-SImon scale into English. How did he use this scale? What were some of his conclusions? Describe Goddard's conclusions about the Kallikak family.

Goddard supported Binet's approach but believed intelligence was innate. He examined intelligence of immigrants. Found scores below chronological age but test was in English. Led to untrue stereotypes. Studied "moron" family. Believed intelligence was innate. Eugenicist. Thought "moron" trait was passed down and should be sterilized.

Terman developed the Stanford Binet scale. How did he use this to study genius?

He studies highly intelligent children. Instead of focusing on less capable, focused on more capable. Suggested multiply IQ by 100 to get rid of decimal point.

Describe WWI"s impact on the testing movement? Who led the WWI testing movement?

First time psychologists were actively involved in war. Offered services mainly through testing. Army was drafting thousands and didn't know where to place them, so psychologists got involved. At first gave everyone stanford-binet but it was taking too long. Adapted to group testing.

How did the Army alpha and beta tests differ?

Alpha - for people who could read and write Beta - people with reduced literacy. - Many farmers couldn't read or immigrants who didn't speak English took Beta - Never truly implemented for placing recruits

What were some of the problems with the early use of intelligence tests in the US?

Around half of army recruits tested at or below "moron" level of intelligence. Lower immigrant scores led to more Eugenics. (Limiting immigration and sterilization of "feeble minded")

How were tests used in the US to support the notion of racial differences? What evidence refuted this notion?

Black people scored lower on IQ tests but it was because of unequal opportunities and education. Horace Mann Bond showed that Blacks from northern states scored higher than Whites from southern states. No credible difference across race but this still proliferates.

Describe Robert Woodworth's measurement of personality? What was the goal? What problem did the army have that this measure was designed to address?

Psychoneurotic Inventory (meant to assess recruit's susceptibility to shell shock). Woodworth personal data sheet (aka psychoneurotic inventory): 100 questions to see if recruits were similar to those who developed shell shock. ONE OF FIRST PERSONALITY TESTS. based on negative emtionality.

What was Walter Dill Scott's contribution to testing during WWI?

Developed scales for officer selection (required literacy). Applied his aptitude testing for business (finding smart/alert salesmen, adapted for military use). By end of war, his committee had 7000 specialists who nterviewed and classified over 3mill men.

What was the significance of the war efforts on Psychology?

Put Psychology on the map (advertised usefulness, inc populariy in universities), Applied psych in quantitative way, Use of testing in war (asses intelligence, aptitude for diff jobs, weed out mentally unfit), Clinical applications (help soldiers endure mental effects), Advance use of Intelligence tests, Advance the use of Psychological Personality Testing (ex. 1931 bernreuter Personality Inventory, personality tests used in organizations)