AP Psych Unit 5.1

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

semantic memory

fact based Jeopardy-like information

procedural memory

how-to memory

episodic memory

memories of certain events in one's past

eidetic memory

photographic memory, very rare

prospective memory

remembering to do things in the future (remembering to remember)

Three stages of memory (IN THIS ORDER)

1) Encoding
2) Storage
3) Retrieval

encoding

the processing of information into the memory system

storage

the retention of encoded information over time

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

shallow processing

encoding the shapes, looks, or surface structure of things, especially words, not the meanings

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

semantic processing

the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words

Self-referent processing

encoding something based on how it relates to you; type of deep processing.

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

rehearsal

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

next-in-line effect

a person in a group has diminished recall for the words of others who spoke immediately before or after the person

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

primacy effect

information at the beginning of a list is remembered better than the material in the middle

recency effect

information at the end of a list is remembered better than the material in the middle

overlearning

the additional rehearsal of information even after learning material that increases retention

visual encoding

the encoding of picture and images

acoustic encoding

the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words

imagery

mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding

rosy retrospection

recalling the high points of an event while forgetting the mundane

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

method of loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations

link method

forming a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together

peg-word system

associates numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers

hierarchies

a few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units

acronym

a type of chunking in which a word is made out of the first letters of the to-be-remembered items

Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin

Three-stage memory model: sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory

sensory memory

a quick, fleeting memory that is activated by the five senses

short term/working memory

activated memory that holds a few items (on average 7) briefly before the information is stored or forgotten

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system that includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

working memory

a newer understanding of Atkinson and Shiffrin's second stage of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" (aka declarative memory)

implicit memory

procedural, how-to memories that we don't have to think about

long-term potentiation

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation and is believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

memory trace

proof of memory, the neuron physically changes when memories are made

CREB

the protein that forms memories by reshaping synapses; the less CREB, the less memory-making ability

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

retrieval cues

anchor points used to access the information you want to remember later

deja vu

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before"; cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

state-dependent memory

what we learn in one state may be more easily recalled when we are again in that state

context-dependent learning

putting yourself back in the context where you experienced something can prime your memory retrieval

amnesia

loss of memory

infantile amnesia

the inability to retrieve memories from before age 3

retrograde amnesia

the inability to remember anything after specific brain surgery or an accident

anterograde amnesia

the inability to form new memories after specific brain surgery or an accident

dementia

a loss of brain function that occurs with certain diseases; affects memory, thinking, language, judgement, and behavior

delirium

sudden severe confusion and rapid changes in brain function that occur with physical or mental illness

alzheimer's disease

a form of dementia that gradually gets worse over time and affects memory, thinking, and behavior; usually the body "forgets" to work and shuts down

dissociative disorder

dis-association of memory, sudden unawareness of some aspect of identity or history

cortisol

stress hormone

Tulving's Encoding Specificity Hypothesis

memory of information is improved if the cues that are present during learning are also present at the time of retrieval because those cues can be used to facilitate retrieval

distributed practice

working to retain information over time, not cramming it all in during one session, that produces better long-term recall

massed practice

cramming that can produce speedy short-term learning and feelings of confidence

tip of the tongue phenomenon

knowing the answer but not being able to retrieve it

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

positive transfer

when old information facilitates the learning of new information

Schater's 7 Sins of Forgetting

THREE SINS OF FORGETTING
1) absent-mindedness
2) transience
3) blocking
THREE SINS OF DISTORTION
1) misattribution
2) suggestibility
3) bias
ONE SIN OF INTRUSION
1) persistence

absent-mindedness

inattention to detail leading to encoding failure

transience

forgetting what occurs with the passage of time

blocking

inaccessibility of stored information

misattribution

confusing the source of information

suggestibility

the lingering effects of misinformation

bias

prejudice in favor of or against one thing, person, or group compared with another

persistence

the continual recurrence of unwanted memories

motivated forgetting

when people unknowingly revise their memories

repression

defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined

confabulation

the spontaneous narrative report of events that never happened; consists of the creation of false memories, perceptions, or beliefs about the self or the environment

Donald Broadbent

developed the encoding Filter Theory that states unimportant information is dropped and relevant information is encoded

Hermann Ebbinghaus

discovered the more time we spend learning novel information, the more we retain it (the Ebbinghaus retention curve)

Karl Lashley

lesioned rats' brains after running a maze to discover where memory is stored; concluded that it is all over the cortex

Eric Kandel and James Schwartz

discovered the neural basis of learning, long-term potentiation, by observing changes in the sending neurons of a simple animal, the California sea slug, Aplysia

Daniel Schacter

specified seven ways in which our memories fail us (three sins of forgetting, three sins of distortion, one sin of intrusion)

Elizabeth Loftus

memory researcher who showed that if false memories, such as being lost in a mall or drowning in a lake, are implanted in individuals, they construct (fabricate) their memories

metacognition

thinking about thinking

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

concepts

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

definitions

some concepts fit into a group because of their definition

prototypes

a mental image or best example of a category

schemas

an organized mental framework about a particular topic, event, object, idea, setting, or group of people

trial and error

just trying any method to solve an answer

means-end analysis

breaking a problem into subgoals in order to reach the ultimate goal