A&P exam 1 objectives

How is anatomy and physiology related to each other

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structure determines the function, and vice versa

Define anatomy

study of structure

Define physiology

study of function

describe several ways of studying human anatomy

* inspection
* palpation
* auscultation
* percussion
* cadaver dissection
* comparative anatomy

define inspection

viewing

define palpation

feeling

define auscultation

listening

define percussion

tapping

define cadaver dissection

cutting and separating human body tissue to reveal tissue relationship

define comparative anatomy

study of multiple species to learn about form, function, and evolution

List the levels of human structure from the most complex to the simplest

* organisms
* organ systems
* organs
* tissues
* cells
* organelles
* molecules
* atoms

state characteristics distinguishing living organisms from nonliving objects

* organization
* cellular composition
* metabolism
* responsiveness
* movement
* homeostasis
* development
* reproduction
* evolution

define organization

living things exhibit a higher level of organization than nonliving things

define cellular composition

living matter is always compartmentalized into one or more cells

define metabolism

internal chemical reactions

define responsiveness

ability to sense and react to stimuli (irritability or excitability)

define movement

of organism and/or of substances within the organism

define homeostasis

maintaining relatively stable internal conditions

define development

differentiation and growth

define reproduction

producing copies of themselves; passing genes to offspring

define evolution

changes in genes from one generation to the next

Discuss the clinical significance of anatomical variation among humans

* can diagnose wrong
* health risks with wrong treatment
* can have unseen problems/symptoms

explain the importance of physiological variations

* lack certain muscles
* atypical number of vertebrae
* atypical number of certain organs
* situs inversus

why is homeostasis central to physiology

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loss of homeostatic control causes illness or death

what is an example of negative feedback and how is it important to homeostasis

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gets hot = body sweats to lower body temp

define negative feedback

* allows dynamic equilibrium within a limited range around a set point
* the response is opposite to the stimulus

what is an example of positive feedback and list the benefits and harmful effects

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having a continuous runaway fever

define positive feedback

self-amplifying cycle, leads to greater change in the same direction. normal way of rapid changes can be dangerous

examples of gradient

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concentration, charge, temp, pressure

define gradient

a difference in chemical concentration, charge, temperature, or pressure between two points

identify the elements of the body from their symbols

* oxygen, O
* hydrogen, H
* calcium, Ca
* carbon, C
* nitrogen, N
* phosphorus, P

define element

simplest form of matter to have unique chemical properties

define compound

molecule composed of two or more different element

define ion

charged particle (atom or molecule) with unequal number of protons and electrons

define electrolytes

substances that ionize in water and form solutions capable of conducting electric current

what are the types of chemical bonds

* ionic bond
* covalent: nonpolar and polar bonds
* hydrogen bond

define ionic bond

attractions between anions and cations

define covalent bonds: polar and nonpolar

* nonpolar bonds: electrons shared equally (strongest bond)
* polar bond: electrons shared unequally (spend more time near oxygen)

define hydrogen bond

a weak attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom in one molecule and a slightly negative oxygen or nitrogen atom in another

what is the biologically important properties of water

* 50% - 75% of body weight
* universal solvent. metabolic reactions depend of solvency of water

define acids with the interpretation of pH scale

is a proton donor released H+ ions in H2O, less than 7 (H+ > OH-)

define base with the interpretation of pH scale

is a proton acceptor, accepts H+ ions, releases OH-, more than 7 (OH- > H+)

What are the energy types

kinetic, potential, chemical

define kinetic energy

energy of motion

define potential energy

energy stored in an object, but not currently doing work

define chemical energy

potential energy in molecular bonds

define energy

capacity to do work

define work

to do work means to move something, all body activities

factors that govern the speed and direction of a reaction

* more concentration
* temperature rises
* catalysis present

explain why carbon is especially well suited to serve as the structural foundation of many biological molecules

They make up all the organic compounds in the body

identify some common functional groups of organic molecules from their formulae

* carbohydrates
* lipids
* proteins
* nucleic acids

define, function, and examples of carbohydrates

definition: sugar made of two monosaccharides

examples: glucose, galactose, fructose, starch, sucrose, lactose, maltose, glycogen, and cellulose

function: energy source converted to glucose. oxidized to make ATP

define, function, and examples of lipids

definition: fatty acids linked to either phosphate or glycerol

examples: triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids

functions: energy storage, insulation, shock absorption. foundation of cell membrane

define, function, and examples of protein

definition: polymer of amino acids

examples: keratin, collagen

function: structure, communication, transport, catalysts, recognition, protection, cell adinsion , movement

define, function, and examples of nucleic acid

definition: polymers of nucleotides DNA and RNA

examples: DNA and RNA, nitrogenous bases, sugar, phosphate groups

function: synthesize proteins, genes

what is polymers relevance, how are they formed and how are they broken

relevance: name for macromolecules made of a repetitive series of similar subunits

formed: by joining monomers (polymerization)

broken: hydrolysis

define dehydration sythesis

(condensation) is how living cells form polymers. covalent bonds

define hydrolysis

digestion; the opposite of dehydration synthesis. covalent bon is broken

explain how enzymes function

speeding up chemical reactions

describe the structure, production, and function of ATP

structure: adenine, ribose and 3 phosphate groups

production and function: body’s most important energy transfer molecule. energy gained from exergonic reaction. holds in covalent bonds

what is cell theroy

* all organisms composed of cells
* cells is the simplest structural and functional unit of life
* organisms structure and function are due to activities of cells
* cells come only from pre-existing cells
* all have biochemical similarities

describe squamous cell shape

thin, flat, scaly

describe cuboidal cell shape

squarish looking

describe columnar cell shape

taller than wide

describe discoid cell shape

disc-shaped

describe fibrous cell shape

thread like

describe polygonal cell shape

irregularly angular shaped

describe stellate cell shape

star-like

describe spheroid cell shape

round to oval

describe fusiform cell shape

thick in middle tapered and ends

state the size range of human cells and discuss factors that limit their size

size range: 10-15 micrometer diameter

limit: overly large can’t support itself, may reupture

what are the three developments in microscopy

* light microscope
* transmission electron microscopy
* scanning electron microscopy

define light microscope

revealed plasma membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm

define transmission electron microscope

improved resolution. capability to see detail

define scanning electron microscope

improved resolution further, but only surface features

outline the major components of a cell

* plasma cell membrane
* cytoplasm
* organelles
* cytoskeleton
* inclusions
* cytosol
* extracellular fluid

describe the structure of the plasma membrane

border of cell, defines borders, governs interactions controls passage of materials

function of lipids with the plasma membrane

most (98%) is lipids, keep membrane humid

function of protein with the plasma membrane

receptors, second messenger system, enzymes, channels, carriers, cells identity and cell-adhesion

function of carbohydrate with the plasma membrane

protection, cell adhesion, immunity, fertilization, transplant compatibility

what is the second-massager system and why is it important for human physiology

communicate within cell receiving chemical message

what is the glycocalyx composition and function

fuzzy coat external

* composition: carbohydrates, glycoproteins, glycolipids
* function: protection, immunity, fertilization, cell adhesion, defense against cancer, transport compatibility

what is the structure and function of microvilli

* structure: extensions of membrane “brush border”
* more surface area

what is the structure and function of cilia

* structure: little hairs, saline layer, mucus float on top
* function: beat in waves. sweeping, materials across a surface in 1 direction

what is the structure and function of flagella

tail of sperm

* structure: whip like structure. longer than cilia
* function: movement “snake like”

explain what is meant by a selectively permeable membrane

allowing some things through but preventing others from passing

what are the various mechanisms for transporting materials through cellular membranes

* passive mechanisms
* active mechanisms
* carrier- mediated mechanisms

define and give examples passive mechanisms

No ATP

* random molecular motion of particles provide necessary energy
* filtration, diffusion, osmosis

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give examples of active mechanisms

ATP

* active transport
* vesicular transport

define carrier-medicated mechanisms

use a membrane protein to transport substance across membrane

define osmolarity and its importance

number of osmoles per liter of solution

define tonicity and its important

the ability of a solution to change the volume of a cell through osmosis

describe the cytoskeleton and its functions

network of protein filaments and cylinder

function: determines cell shape, supports structures, organizes cell contents, directs movement

what are the main organelles of a cell

* microfilaments
* nucleus
* mitochondria
* lysosomes
* peroxisomes
* endoplasmic reticulum (rough and smooth)
* golgi complex
* ribosomes
* centrioles
* basal body

define microfilaments

made of actin, forms terminal web

define nucleus

contains DNA. enclosed by nuclear envelope. contains genes and instructions

define mitochondria

powerhouse of cell, makes ATP, surrounded by double membrane. and folds that contain matrix

define lysosomes

package of enzymes bound by membrane. hydrolytic digestion of macromolecules, surplus cells

define peroxisomes

resembles lysosomes but contain different enzymes function is to oxidize organic molecules

define endoplasmic reticulum (rough)

covered with ribosomes. produces lipids and prteins