Anatomy 2 Exam 1

what are the two communication systems

endocrine and nervous

what is the difference between endocrine and nervous systems

Endocrine 

* Long term 
* Long to start, long to stop response 
* Widespread Communication
* Hormones travel through blood 
* Any cell with right receptor receives signal
* Chemical communication through hormones


* Nervous 
* Short term 
* Short to start, short to stop response 
* Limited Communication 
* Signal can only travel where axons are (anatomical limits) 
* Electrical communication through action potentials 

what are glands

release chemicals

what are the two types of glands and there differences

endocrine and exocrine

* Endocrine 
* Release chemical within the body 
* Exocrine 
* Release chemical outside the body

what are the two categories of hormones

water-soluble and fat-soluble

describe water-soluble hormones

* Non-steroid hormone 
* Receptor outside cell 
* Communicate through second messengers 
* Free hormone 
* Can travel through blood solo 
* Made of amino acids

describe fat-soluble hormones

* Steroid hormone 
* Receptor inside cell 
* Diffuse directly into nucleus and regulate gene expression
* Bound hormone 
* Needs transport protein to travel through blood 
* Made of fat & cholestero

what are the characteristics of hormones

specificity, affinity, sensitivity

what is specificity

* How many receptor types can receive a chemical 
* High specificity = low # of receptor types 
* Little specificity = high # of receptor types

what is affinity

How strongly a chemical binds to receptor

what is sensitivity

* How many receptors for a specific chemical 
* High sensitivity= more receptors= small amount of chemical needed to receive signal and cause a response
* Low sensitivity = little receptors= large amount of chemical needed to receive signal and cause a response

what are the alterations to hormone sensitivity

* Up-regulation 
* Increase the # of receptors 
* Due to little amount of a chemical 
* Causes greater sensitivity to chemical 
* Down- regulation 
* Decrease the # of receptors 
* Due to large amount of a chemical 
* Causes decreased sensitivity to chemical

what are the processes to get rid of a hormone

degradation and excretion

what is degradation

Breaking down of a hormone by enzymes

what is excretion

Filtered out of body by kidney + liver in pee

how are water soluble molecules excreted and how does it related to quantity

* Easier to excrete (no additional process) 
* Higher quantities are needed because it is easy to remove

how are fat soluble molecules excreted and how does it related to quantity

* Harder to excrete 
* Conjugation
* Lower quantities are needed because it is harder to remove

what is conjugation

* Process of adding functional groups to fat soluble molecules making them water soluble allowing them to be excreted 

describe the hypothalamus and its relationship to the pituitary gland

* Highest level of endocrine control 
* Releases hormones to activate the anterior pituitary gland 
* Activates neurons to posterior pituitary to release hormones
* Cell body in hypothalamus makes hormones
* axon terminal in posterior pituitary releases the hormones

what are the 2 nuclei in the hypothalamus

paraventricular nuclei, supraoptic nucleus

describe the paraventricular nucleus

* Next to 3rd ventricle 
* Makes oxytocin

describe the supraoptic nucleus

* Above optic chiasm 
* Makes ADH/ Vasopressin

what hormones does the anterior pituitary make and release

“FLAT PG”

FSH

LH

ACTH

TSH

PRL

what is FSH

* Follicle Stimulating Hormone
* Development of sperm + egg

what is LH

* Luteinizing Hormone  
* Produce reproductive hormones

what is ACTH

* Adrenocorticotropic Hormone  
* Stress

what is TSH

* Thyroid Stimulating Hormone
* Increase metabolism 

what is PRL

* Prolactin (PRL)
* Milk production

what hormones are released by posterior pituitary

oxytocin and Vasopressin/ Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

what is oxytocin

* Cause smooth muscle contractions 
* Induce labor contractions 
* Milk release 
* Mother-baby bonding

what is Vasopressin/ Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

* Vasoconstriction 
* Decrease urination

describe the structure of the thyroid

* “Bowtie”
* 2 lobes connected by isthmus
* Organized into follicles

what hormone does the thyroid recieve

TSH

what hormones does the thyroid gland make

thyroid hormone and calcitonin

what does the thyroid hormone do

* Increases metabolism 
* Iodine is essential component

what does calcitonin do

Decrease blood calcium

what are the types of cells in the thyroid

follicular cells

C-cells/ parafollicular cells

describe follicular cells

* Cells lining follicle
* Make thyroid hormone

describe c-cells/ parafollicular cells

* Outside follicle 
* Make calcitonin

what are the two types of thyroid disease

hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism

describe hyperthyroidism and an example

* Overactive thyroid 
* Grave’s Disease 
* Autoimmune disease in which body signal mimics signal to thyroid to make thyroid hormone

describe hypothyroidism and an example

* Underactive thyroid 
* Hasimoto’s Disease 
* Autoimmune

describe the structure of the parathyroid gland

* 4 glands on posterior side of thyroid 
* “Clips of bowtie”

what hormone does the parathyroid make

parathyroid hormone

what does the parathyroid hormone do and how

increase blood calcium

* Acts on Digestive System to absorb more 
* Acts on Kidneys to release less 
* Acts on Bones (↑osteoclasts, ↓osteoblasts) to put calcium in blood

what are the two functions of the pancreas

* Exocrine 
* Release digestive enzymes 
* Endocrine 
* Regulate Blood Sugar

where are the endocrine cells found in the pancreas

islets

what are the types of endocrine cells in the pancreas

alpha, beta, delta

describe the alpha cells

* Increase blood sugar 
* Make glucagon  
* “Fasting”

describe the beta cells

* Decrease blood sugar 
* Make Insulin 
* “Feasting

describe the delta cells

* Inhibits growth 
* Makes Somatostatin

describe the structure and location of the adrenal glands

* Superior to kidney 
* 2 parts 
* Medulla 
* Cortex 

what is the difference between adrenal medulla and cortext

* Medulla 
* Middle 
* Nervous System 
* Cortex 
* Outer 
* Endocrine system

what hormones does the adrenal cortex release

Releases corticosteroids hormones

what are the 3 layers of the adrenal cortex

Zona glomerulsa (outer layer)

Zona fasciculata (middle layer)

Zona Reticularis (inner layer)

describe the Zona glomerulsa

(outer layer)

* Produces Mineralocorticoid Hormones 
* Regulates salt/ water balance
* Effects Glomeruli (structure in kidney to regulate urine)

describe the Zona fasciculata

(middle layer)

* Produces Glucocorticoids 
* Cortisol 
* Decrease stress levels 
* Decrease immune system 
* Put more sugar in blood

describe the Zona Reticularis

(inner layer)

Produces sex hormones

what are examples of cortisol imbalances

* Addison’s 
* Hypocortisol 
* Low blood sugars 
* Cushing’s 
* Hypercortisol 
* High blood sugars

what is the male primary sex organ and what does it do

testis/ testes

involved in making and developing sperm

secrete male sex hormones

what is the parts of the internal anatomy of the testes

lobules, rete testis, efferent ducts

what are the lobules

* Smaller section of organ 
* Made of seminiferous tubules

what are seminiferous tubules

* Coiled tubes 
* Site of spermatogenesis 

what is spermatogenesis

Make spermatids (immature sperm)

what are the two parts of the seminiferous tubules

* Basal lamina 
* Lumen 
* Hollow section of tube

what are the cells in the seminiferous tubules

sperm

nurse cells/ sertoli cells/ sustenacular cells

describe the formation of sperm in the seminiferous tubules

* Begin as spermatogonium on the outside 
* Develop into spermatids as the reach the middle

describe Nurse cells/ Sertoli cells/ Sustentacular Cells

* Help sperm to develop 
* Have receptors for FSH

what are the cells outside the seminiferous tubules

Interstitial/ Leydig cells

describe Interstitial/ Leydig cells

Have receptors for LH 

* Make sex hormones

describe the rete testis

network of tubules where lobules send sperm

describe the efferent ducts

Tubes for sperm to leave testis

what is important about testicular cancer

Different type of cancer for each type of cell

what are the secondary structures of the male reproductive system

epididymis, spermatic cord, vas deferens, ejaculatroy duct, urethra, scrotum

what is the epididymis responsible form

* Site of spermatogenesis
* Maturing of sperm

where is sperm held before ejaculation

tail of epidymis

what is within spermatic cord

blood vessels, ductus deferens

what is spermatic cord wrapped by

* Tunica vaginalis 
* Tunica albinis 
* Cremaster Muscle

what is the role of the cremaster muscle

* Determine position of testes to keep them the right temperature 
* Hot outside- cremaster relaxes- testes sag 
* Cold outside- cremaster contracts- testes pulled close to body

what is the role of vas deferens

Connects epididymis to ejaculatory duct

what is the role of ejaculatory duct

Where three accessory glands release fluid to make semen

what are the three accessory glands in male reproductive system

seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands

describe the seminal vesicles

* Paired 
* Make Seminal Fluid 
* Sugary fluid 
* Provide energy for sperm to swim

describe the prostate gland

* Make alkaline fluid 
* Neutralizes vagina to allow sperm to meet egg

describe the bulbourethral glands

* Paired 
* Makes preejaculatory FLuid 
* Lubricate urethra to allow semen to move through easier

what are the parts of the male urethra

* Prostatic urethra 
* Inside prostate 
* Penile Urethra 
* Inside penis

what is the scrotum

* Sack that holds testes 

what is the pathway of sperm

Seminiferous tubules→Rete testis→Efferent Ductules→Head of Epididymis→Body of Epididymis→Tail of Epididymis → Vas Deferens →Ejaculatory Duct→ Urethra

what is gametogenesis

Production of gametes

what is spermatogenesis

production of sperm

when does spermatogenesis occur

starting at Puberty and continues through life

what is the process of spermatogenesis

* Begin with Spermatogonia 
* Stem cells that continually undergo mitosis 
* Produce primary spermatocytes (diploid) 
* Primary Spermatocytes undergo Meiosis I 
* Produce 2 secondary spermatocytes (haploid)
* Secondary Spermatocytes undergo Meiosis II 
* Produce 4 spermatids (haploid)

what is oogenesis

production of egg

what is the process of oogenesis and when does each step occur

* Oogonium 
* Stem cells continually undergo mitosis 
* All mitotic divisions occur before birth 
* Produce primary oocytes 
* Primary Oocytes 
* Begin Meiosis I during fetal development but stop at prophase I
* Beginning at menarche one batch completes meiosis I each month 
* Produce 1 secondary oocyte and 1 polar body 
* Secondary Oocytes 
* Begin Meiosis II but stop at Metaphase II 
* Produces 1 ootid and 1 polar body 
* Remain in Metaphase II until fertilization

what is spermiogenesis

maturation of sperm

what are the parts of the speratozoa and there functions

Head 

* Nucleus 
* Acrosome 
* Wedge at front of head 
* Helps with fertilization 


* Body 
* Lots of Mitochondria 
* Help tail to swim 
* Tail 
* Flagellum

what occurs during the differentiation of spermatids

* Acrosomal vesicle forms 
* Contains acid to help break down egg and allow for fertilization 
* Tail formed 
* Mitochondria gather around body 
* Excess cytoplasm lost

what is spermiation

Release of sperm from sertoli cells

what is the female primary sex organ

ovaries

what is the role of ovaries

* Produce eggs 
* Produce sex hormones