Exam 2 - Sociology

social interaction

the process by which people act toward or respond to other people and is the foundation for all relationships and groups in society

social structure

the complex framework of societal institutions and the social practices that make up a society that organize and establish limits on people’s behavior

status

a socially defined position in a group or society characterized by certain expectations, rights, and duties

status set

comprises all the statuses that a person occupies at a given time

ascribed status

a social position conferred at birth or received involuntarily later in life, based on attributes over which the individual has little or no control

achieved status

a social position that a person assumes voluntarily as a result of personal choice, merit, or direct effort

master status

the most important status a person occupies

status symbols

material signs that inform others of a person’s specific status

role

a set of behavioral expectations associated with a given status

role conflict

occurs when incompatible role demands are placed on a person by two or more statuses held at the same time

role strain

occurs when incompatible demands are built into a single status that a person occupies

role exit

occurs when people disengage from social roles that have been central to their self identity

social institution

a set of organized beliefs and rules that establish how a society will attempt to meet its basic needs

functionalist perspective

social institutions perform essential functions for society

conflict theorist perspective

social institutions meet basic needs but not equally

formal organization

a highly structured group formed for the purpose of completing certain tasks or achieving specific goals

hunting and gathering societies

use of simple technology for hunting animals and gathering vegetation

pastoral societies

based on technology that supports domestication of large animals to provide food

horticultural societies

based on technology that supports the cultivation of plants to provide food

agrarian societies

use of technology for large scale farming, including animal-drawn or energy powered equipment, to produce their food supply

industrial societies

based on technology that mechanizes production

postindustrial societies

ones in which technology supports a service economy

social solidarity

derives from a society’s social structure, which is based on the society’s division of labor

division of labor

how the various tasks of a society are divided up and performed

mechanical solidarity

the social cohesion of preindustrial societies in which people feel united by shared values and common social bonds

organic solidarity

the social cohesion found in industrial societies, in which people perform very specialized tasks and feel united by their mutual dependence

social construction of reality

the process by which our perception of reality is largely shaped by the subjunctive meaning that we give an experience

self-fulfilling prophecy

a false belief or prediction that produces behavior that makes the originally false belief come true

ethnomethodology

the study of commonsense knowledge that people use to understand the situations in which they find themselves

breaching experiments

violate unspoken rule of interaction to expose the strength of social construction

dramaturgical analysis

the study of social interaction that compares everyday life to a theatrical presentation

social script

a playbook that the actors use to guide their performance to achieve goals or fulfill the role they are playing

impression management (presentation of self)

refers to people’s efforts to present themselves to others in ways that are most favorable to their own self image

face-saving behavior

the strategies people use to rescue their performance when they experience a loss of face (embarrassment)

nonverbal communication

the transfer of information between persons without the use of words

social group

a collective of two or more people who interact frequently with one another share a sense of belonging, and having a feeling of interdependence

aggregate

a collection of people who happen to be in the same place at the same time

category

a number of people who share a similar characteristics

primary groups

small, less specialized groups in which members engage in face-to-face, emotion based interaction over an extended period of time

secondary groups

larger, more specialized groups in which members engage in face-to-face, emotion based interaction over an extended period of time

ingroup

a group to which a person belongs and with which the person feels a sense of identity

outgroup

a group to which a person does not belong and toward which the person may feel a sense of hostility or competitiveness

reference groups

groups that strongly influence a person’s behavior and social attitudes, regardless of whether that individual is an actual member

network

a web of social relationships that link one person with other people

small group

a group that is collectively small enough for all members to be acquainted with one another and to interact simultaneously

dyad

two members of a group

triad

three members of a group

leadership

refers to the ability to influence what goes on in a group or social system

instrumental leadership

goal or task oriented leadership

expressive leadership

provides emotional support for members

authoritarian leaders

make all major group decisions and assign tasks to members

democratic leadership

encourage group discussion and decision making through consensus building

laissez-faire leaders

only minimally involved in decision making and encourage group members to make their own decisions

conformity

the process of maintaining or changing behavior to comply with the norms established by a society, subculture, or other groups

groupthink

the process by which members of a cohesive group arrive at a decision that many individual privately believe is unwise

normative

an organization that we voluntarily join to pursue a common interest or gain personal satisfaction or prestige from being a member

coercive

an organization that people are forced to join

utilitarian

an organization we voluntarily join to be provided a reward

bureaucracy

an organizational model characterized by a hierarchy of authority, a clear division of labor, explicit rules and procedures, and impersonality in personnel matters

rationality

the process by which traditional methods of social organization, characterized by informality and spontaneity, are gradually replaced by efficiently administered formal rules and procedures

mcdonaldization

fast food model applied to other types of businesses

informal side of bureaucracy

composed of day-to-day activities and interactions that ignore, bypass, or do not correspond with the official rules and procedures of bureaucracy

goal displacement

survival of the organization is more important that the goals that are set

bureaucratic personality

workers are more concerned with following correct procedures than getting the job done correctly

iron law of oligarchy

the tendency to become a bureaucracy ruled by the few

humanizing bureaucracy

a movement to establish an organizational environment that develops rather than impedes human resources

uniform crime report (UCR)

8 types of crime tabulated by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)

Violent Crimes: murder, rape, robbery, assault

Property Crimes: burglary, larceny-theft, motor-vehicle theft, arson

deviance

any behavior, belief, condition that violates significant social norms in the society or group in which it occurs

crime

a behavior that violates criminal law and is punishable with fines, jail terms, and/or other negative sanctions

juvenile delinquency

a violation of the law or the commission of a status offense by young people

social control

the systematic practices that social groups develop in order to encourage conformity to norms, rules, and laws and to discourage deviance

criminology

the systematic study of crime and the criminal justice system, including the police, courts, and prisons

Merton’s strain theory

people feel strain when they are exposed to cultural goals that they are unable to obtain because they do not have access to culturally approved means to achieving those goals

conformity

pursuing cultural goals through socially approved means

innovation

usually socially unapproved or unconventional means to obtain culturally approved goals

ritualism

using the same socially approved means to achieve less elusive goals

retreatism

to reject both the cultural goals and the means to obtain them, then find a way to escape it

rebellion

to reject the cultural goals and means, then work to replace them

Durkheim’s deviance theory

deviance is rooted in societal factors such as rapid social change and lack of social integration among people

illegitimate opportunity structures

circumstances that provide opportunity for people to acquire through illegitimate activities what they cannot achieve through legitimate channels

conflict perspective on deviance

• those in power define what is deviant and what is not

• feminist scholars say that theories of deviance used to explain male behavior cannot be used to explain feminist behavior

differential justice

differences in the way social control is exercised over different groups

liberal feminist approach

rational response to discrimination

socialist feminist approach

capitalism + patriarchy

differential association theory

people have a greater tendency to deviate from societal norms when they frequently associate with individuals who are more favorable toward deviance than conformity

rational choice theory

deviant behavior occurs when a person weights the cost and benefits of nonconventional or criminal behavior and determines that the benefits will outweigh the risks involved in such actions

social bond theory

holds that the probability of deviant behavior increases when a person’s ties to society are weakened or broken

labeling theory

deviance is a socially constructed process in which social control agencies designate certain people as deviants and they, in turn, come to accept the label placed upon them and begin to act accordingly

primary deviance

the initial act of rule breaking

secondary deviance

occurs when a person who has been labeled a deviant accepts that new identity and continues the deviant behaviors

tertiary deviance

when a person who has been labeled a deviant seeks to normalize the behavior by relabeling it as non-deviant

postmodernist perspective on deviance

the study of deviance reveals how the powerful exert control over the powerless by taking away their free will to think and act as they might choose

problems with uniform crime report

1. only reported crimes (most crimes are under-reported)

2. crimes vary by jurisdiction

3. reporting affected by politics, funding

victimless crime

those that involve a willing exchange of illegal goods or services among adults

occupational (white collar crimes)

illegal activities committed by people in the course of their employment or financial affairs

corporate crimes

illegal acts committed by corporate employees on behalf of the corporation and with its support

internet crimes

consists of FBI-related scams, identity theft, nondelivery of merchandise

organize crime

a business operation that supplies illegal goods and services for profit

political crime

illegal or unethical acts involving the usurpation of power by government officials are illegal/unethical acts of perpetrated against the government by outsiders seeking to make a political statement, undermine the government, or overthrow it

terrorism

the calculated unlawful use of physical force or threats of violence against persons or property in order to intimidate or coerce a government, some political, religious, economic, or social objective