MIDTERM CONSERV. BIO

Genetic Diversity?

Refers to the range of different inherited traits within a species.

Species Diversity?

The number of different species present in a place and relative abundance of each of those species.

Community/Ecosystem Diversity?

The degree of variation of life forms within a given species, ecosystem, biome, or an entire planet.

How do the different levels of biodiversity (genetic, species, community/ecosystem) relate to levels of biological organization (populations, communities, landscapes)?

Populations: Genetic Diversity

Communities and Ecosystems: Species Diversity

Landscapes: Community and Ecosystem Diversity

What is the difference between “species richness” and “species evenness”?

* Species richness is simply the number of species in a community.


* Species diversity is more complex, and includes a measure of the number of species in a community, and a measure of the abundance of each species.

What does a “diversity index” measure or depict?

A diversity index is a quantitative measure that reflects how many different types (such as species) there are in a dataset (a community), and that can simultaneously take into account the phylogenetic relations.

Relative Abundance?

Relative abundance refers to the evenness of distribution of individuals among species in a community.

What is a species accumulation curve?

Population gives the expected number of observed species or distinct classes as a function of sampling effort.

How can species accumulation data be used to estimate species richness in an incompletely sampled community?

Raw species richness counts, which are used to create accumulation curves, can only be compared when the species richness has reached a clear asymptote.

How can rarefaction curves be used to compare the species richness of two communities that received different sampling efforts?

Rarefaction curves produce smoother lines that facilitate point-to-point or full dataset comparisons.

Community Composition?

Which species are present and in which relative abundance.

Community Structure (Organizational)?

Organization of the community; complexity of the community.

Community Structure (Vegetation)?

Physical environment created by the dominant plant community. May be expressed as density, basal area, # of strata, plant functional groups.

Succession?

Gradual and somewhat predictable change in community structure and composition through time, following natural disturbance.

Successional Stage?

A particular community at a given time since disturbance.

Ecosystem Process/Function?

Inputs, outputs, or internal transfers of materials or energy by the ecosystem.

Define beta-diversity. What does it measure? Can you calculate beta-diversity given an appropriate data set?

* Beta diversity is scale dependent. 
* It is calculated from species richness alone
* gamma/alpha (community level)
* Species pool across the region/Average number of species per community

What is meant by the term “scale-dependent” as it applies to community-level biodiversity?

The degree to which ecological phenomena vary as a function of grain, extent, or other components of scale. The purpose of this article is to evaluate the scale dependence of species richness.

Ecologically-rich set of \n community/ecosystem attributes that help to articulate what might be considered worth \n protecting at the level of community/ecosystem diversity?

* …with unique species composition.
* ...with interesting focal species.
* ... with unique organizational structure.
* ...with unique physical (vegetative) structure.
* ...that support natural disturbance.
* ...with unique disturbance histories.
* ...that contribute to a variety of successional stages across the broader landscape.
* ...that provide important ecosystem processes/functions.
* ...that have unique non-biological features

Niche?

A range of physical and biological conditions under which species can survive and persist. 

Extirpation?

Locally extinct.

Extinction?

Globally extinct.

What are some evolutionary and ecological factors that affect biodiversity?

Ecological

* Competition
* Predation
* Mutualism
* Disturbance

Environmental

* Genetic variation
* Natural selection
* Speciation
* Genetic drift, founder effect, bottleneck
* Large populations

What are the two main environmental factors (landscape scale) that promote high \n biodiversity?

Species diversity and species richness.

What is the species-area effect?

Relationship between the area of a habitat, or of part of a habitat, and the number of species found within that area.

Why do large areas of habitat tend to support greater numbers of species?

Area increases diversity because a larger plot is likely to have more habitats, hence niches, to support a greater variety of species.

What does the “intermediate disturbance hypothesis” predict?

The highest diversity will occur at levels of moderate disturbance.

How does connectivity and isolation affect biodiversity?

Affects the abundance and species richness of a habitat.

Name some places on earth (ie at the global scale) where biodiversity is very high.

1. Mexico


2. Central America
3. Brazil
4. South Africa

What is the “latitudinal gradient” of biodiversity?

Biogeographic patterns that define the way in which components of taxonomic, phylogenetic, functional, genetic, or phrenetic dimensions change with latitudinal position on the surface of the earth.

How would you argue or advocate for the protection of natural biodiversity?

1. Government legislation
2. Nature preserves
3. Reducing invasive species
4. Habitat restoration
5. Captive breeding and seed banks
6. Research
7. Reduce climate change
8. Purchase sustainable products

Intrinsic?

Valuable even if useless for humanity.

* Moral
* Ethical
* Religious
* Provisioning services
* Regulating and supporting services

Instrumental?

Valuable for humanity, especially material wants and needs.

* Direct use 


* Indirect use
* Option value
* Non-use
* Cultural services

Relational?

Valuable for human connection to nature.

* Personal and cultural identity


* Social responsibility
* Historical and educational
* Biophilia
* Aesthetic

Anthropocentrism?

Humans should view nature primarily for its value and benefit to humans. We should focus on human well-being in our decision regarding the environment.

Non-anthropocentrism?

Ethics grants moral standing to such natural objects as animals, plants and landscapes.

Direct use value?

Obtained through a removable product in nature (i.e., timber, fish, water).

Indirect use value?

Obtained through a non-removable product in nature (i.e., sunset, waterfall).

Non-use value?

Is the value that people assign to economic goods (including public goods) even if they never have and never will use it. e

Monetizable value?

The price the customer is prepared and willing to pay for your product or service.

Measurable value?

The goal of the project and is used to define the value that your project will bring to your client.

Intangible value?

Intellectual property, trademarks, brands, customer lists and in some cases non-compete agreements.

What was “Biosphere 2”? What lessons does it teach us?

Located near Tucson, Arizona, was constructed to be the largest materially enclosed ecosystem on Earth.

\n Provisioning services?

Any type of benefits to people that can be extracted from nature.

Ex: drinking water, timber, wood fuel, natural gas, oils, and plants.

Regulating services?

The benefit provided by ecosystem processes that moderate natural phenomena.

Ex: pollination, decomposition, water purification, erosion and flood control, and carbon storage and climate regulation.

Cultural services?

The non-material benefits people obtain from ecosystems.

Ex: aesthetic inspiration, cultural identity, sense of home, and spiritual experience related to the natural environment.

Supporting services?

The most basic natural cycles that nature needs to function. None of the other services would be possible without supporting services.

Ex: water cycle, photosynthesis, and the cycling of nutrients between organisms and the soil.

What is niche partitioning?

The process by which natural selection drives competing species into different patterns of resource use of different niches.

What is the “selection effect”?

Dominance by species with particular traits affects ecosystem processes.

Give an example of a “dilution effect?”

The dilution effect hypothesis proposes that diverse host communities inhibit the abundance of parasites through several mechanisms, such as regulating populations of susceptible hosts or interfering with the transmission process.

What are the main arguments (in readings) for an ecosystem services approach to conservation? Do you find their arguments persuasive? Why or why not?

Four main points to his critique: \n 1.) ES assumes biosphere is always benevolent. It isn’t, so how do we resolve conflict of interest with nature? \n 2.) Markets change, so market-based valuation of nature will change. Nature can be “de-valued” if the market changes. \n 3.) ES bets against human ingenuity. \n 4.) Making money and protecting nature are often mutually exclusive

What are the main arguments (in readings) for an intrinsic value approach to conservation? Do you find their arguments persuasive? Why or why not?

1\.) Argues that his critics are polarizing the argument. He conceded that ES should be “cautiously applied in some contexts”.

2\.) Concedes that “cultural, historic, and aesthetic” values could be called “services”.

3\.) Although there may be no harm in emphasizing utilitarian worth, there may be harm in overemphasizing it

What is “subjective intrinsic value? What is “objective intrinsic value”?

Subjective: Requires a human “valuer” – so it is anthropogenic even if not anthropocentric. We project intrinsic value into nature.

Objective: Exists in the world, apart from \n humans. We recognize it, but we don’t create it.

What are Holmes Ralston III’s main arguments that objective intrinsic value exists?

Individual Level: Individual organisms value their lives and the lives of their offspring.

Species Level: Where do individuals get the adaptations/traits that allow them to survive \n and reproduce, they inherit them from their species.

Ecosystem Level: Where do species get these adaptations? they evolve within ecosystems.

What is the “Last Man” argument? What ethical position is it attempting to defend? Do you find this argument persuasive? Why or why not?

Last Man does something morally wrong as he destroys plants and trees and other parts of nature. However, since his acts do not affect any humans, they must be wrong for some other reason.

What are the IUCN’s seven “Red List categories” (not counting categories for which there is not adequate data)? What are the three “Threatened” categories, in order of extinction risk?

1. Data Deficient (DD)
2. Least Concern (LC)
3. Near Threatened (NT)
4. Vulnerable (VU)
5. Endangered (EN)
6. Critically Endangered (CR)
7. Extinct in the Wild (EW)
8. Extinct (EX)

What is the approximate number of known extinctions since 1500 (including species extant, but extinct in the wild)?

Approximately 786 extinctions since 1500 CE

What is the equation for the species-area relationship? What do the terms in this equation mean?

* S=CA^z


1. S= Species Richness
2. C= Constant (spp. richness)
3. A= Area
4. Z= Constant (slope)

Habitat Conversion?

Conversion of native habitat to humans land use such as urbanization or agriculture.

Habitat Degradation?

Habitat is degraded by pollution of air, water, soil by chemicals or waste (includes mining waste, pesticides/herbicides, nitrogen pollution, toxins, etc.)

Habitat Fragmentation?

Large continuous areas of diverse habitat are reduced in size and divided into fragments (generally increases edge at the expense of deep interior).

What is an “ecological footprint” and why is it relevant to habitat alteration?

The impact of a person or community on the environment, expressed as the amount of land required to sustain their use of natural resources.

What are the main specific causes of habitat conversion?

Land conversion for development. The conversion of lands that once provided wildlife habitat to housing developments, roads, office parks, strip malls, parking lots and industrial sites continues, even during the current economic crisis.

What are the main specific causes of fragmentation?

Can be caused naturally, however, the leading cause of habitat fragmentation are human activities and development through land clearing, deforestation, and habitat destruction.

What are “edge-effects”? Can you give some examples?

In ecology, edge effect refers to changes in a population or community along the boundary of a habitat. A clear example of this is when an agricultural field meets a forest.

What are the environmental/ecological effects of fragmentation?

Fragmentation limits wildlife mobility. Individuals struggle to move between habitat patches, which can lead to inbreeding and a loss of genetic diversity. This reduces the long-term health of a population, making it more vulnerable to disease and at greater risk of extinction.

What are the main causes of habitat degradation?

Pollution, invasive species, and disruption of ecosystem processes (such as changing the intensity of fires in an ecosystem) are some of the ways habitats can become so degraded, they no longer support native wildlife.

What is the history of this threat? Can you provide an example of a species that went extinct due to over-exploitation?

A few of the species that have been driven globally extinct by overexploitation, and that are currently threatened by extinction due to overexploitation.

Example.) Wooly Mammoth, Passenger Pigeon.

What is the “tragedy of the commons”? Can you give an example? How can it be avoided?

When common resources are consumed with an eye towards short-term gain, the result can be a tragedy of the commons. Example.) When water is drawn from an aquifer faster than it refills, the immediate gains are undercut by the long-term danger of drought.

Solution.) Imposition of private property rights, government regulation, or the development of a collective action arrangement.

Commercial over-exploitation?

Fishing, Logging, Wildlife Trade.

Subsistence over-exploitation?

Wild Meat (hunting for human consumption).

Recreational over-exploitation?

Sports hunting and fishing (trophy)

Native Species?

A species, subspecies, or lower taxon occurring within its natural range (past or present) and dispersal potential.

Alien Species?

A species, subspecies, or lower taxon occurring outside of its natural range (past or present) and dispersal potential.

Invasive Species?

An alien species which becomes established in natural or seminatural ecosystems or habitat, is an agent of change, and threatens native biological diversity.

Give some examples of unintentional and intentional introduction of non-native spp?

1\.) Shipping ports

2\.) Keeping native populations in check.

Why do most non-native species fail to establish?

They are competing with native species for limited resources.

What are four theories/hypotheses for why some non-natives do establish?

1\.) Reproduce Quickly

2\.) Lack Native Predators

3\.) Easily Adapt

4\.) Harm property/outcompete native plants/animals

What is biotic homogenization?

Process by which two or more spatially distributed ecological communities become increasingly similar over time.

What are some approaches to management/control of invasive?

\
* Intentional 
* Pet trade
* Ornamental Plants
* Bio-control
* Unintentional
* Car tires
* Bodies
* Luggage
* Ships

So far, climate change has not caused many extinctions. What is the reason for the concern?

Because there are significant percentages of extinctions that are predicted due to climate change.

Climate Change?

Refers to a suite of abiotic variables that are all changing across \n the globe.

Components of Climate Change?

1\.) Greenhouse gases

2\.) Temperature

3\.) Precipitation

4\.) Ocean Dynamics

5\.) Ocean Acidification

6\.) Extreme Events

Levels of Biological Response?

1\.) Evolution

2\.) Physiology

3\.) Population Dynamics

4\.) Species Dynamics

5\.) Interspecific Interactions

6\.) Ecosystem Services

Response to Climate Change?

1\.) Population Loss

2\.) Range Shift

3\.) Altered Phenology

4\.) Biome Shifts

5\.) Changes in Ecosystem Services

Geographic Range Shifts?

Species shift their spatial distribution in response to changing climate conditions.

Example.) Rattlesnakes, for example, live only in the Western Hemisphere, in North and South America

Range Shifts?

Changes of the distribution limits of a species, generally along altitudinal or latitudinal gradients.

Population Asynchrony?

A reduction in the abundance of one species is more likely to be compensated by the increase in the abundance of other species.

Climate Induced Biome Shifts?

Warmer temperatures and high soil nitrogen levels are causing Earth's largest land biome to advance northward.

Climate Induced Regime Shifts?

Large, sudden changes in ecosystems that last for substantial periods of time.

Regions?

A large landscape mosaic over a broad spatial area.

* Biomes are large regions with natural boundaries

Continental-Scale Diversity?

Is biodiversity measured or reported at the scale of continents.

Global Diversity?

Is diversity measured or reported at global scale.

Entire Landscape Mosaic?

1. Protected and unprotected lands 
2. Corridors between protected lands
3. Public and private lands
4. Natural areas, semi-natural areas, built
5. Highly managed areas vs. less managed areas
6. Wildlands, agricultural lands, ex-urban, sub-urban, urban areas
7. Natural landscape elements
8. Political boundaries 
9. A variety of stakeholders
10. Management entitles at different scales

Large Scale Projects of Conservation?

* Hudson river estuary corridor
* Yellowstone to Yukon 
* Half-earth project

Managing Biodiversity?

* Getting things in place 
* Management actions 

Toolbox for manager?

* Concepts
* Ecological theory/scale
* Passive vs. active management 
* Adaptive management 
* Resilience


* Tools 
* Monitoring
* Mapping
* Modeling

Management Actions?

* Actions for managing populations
* Monitoring 
* Reintroducing
* Captive breeding 
* Infrastructure for species
* Actions for management communities/ecosystems
* Removal
* Introductions
* Managing disturbance and disturbance of regime change
* Let burn
* Prescribed fire
* Thinning 
* Fire suppression
* Flood management

Managing Against Climate Change?

* Refugia/safe havens
* Migration
* Building ecological resilience
* Building evolutionary resilience

Management Against Invasive Species?

* Early detection, eradication, containment
* Long-term management (physical, chemical, biological)
* Novel ecosystem approach (embrace new communities)