SOC 201 Exam 1

Sally examines the grades she receives for class participation. Recalling her prior semester she writes down that she received a 10/10 from Ms. Smith and a 9/10 from Ms. Baxter, 4/10 from Mr. Cagney, 3/10 from Mr. Wiley and 10/10 from Ms. Dona. She realizes that she spoke a lot in classes with Smith, Baxter and Dona and very little in her other two classes. She continues listing all of her college courses, the gender of the professor and whether or not she spoke in class. She notices that she tends to speak in classes where the instructor is female and rarely speaks when the instructor is male. She realizes that homophily explains this tendency. Sally is using

A. inductive reasoning

B. reductionism

C. qualitative analysis

D. deductive reasoning

A. Inductive Reasoning

What can explain the spurious positive relationship between the number of fire trucks dispatched and the amount of fire damage?

A. Fires are more likely during heat waves in the summer, which is precisely when most fire fighters are on vacation.

B. The more fire trucks are dispatched, the more damage can be prevented.

C. Large cities have more fire trucks than small towns, and are therefore more able to cope with big fires.

D. Large fires, which cause more damage, need more fire trucks.

D. Large fires, which cause more damage, need more fire trucks.

Consider the following statements concerning your ability to do well on an exam. What types of explanation are they?

(1) You did poorly on your first biology exam because it is your worst subject, you didn't have much time to prepare, you were sick, you didn't sleep well the night before, you overslept and showed up late, and the person next to you was making a lot of noise.

(2) After 8 semesters at Stony Brook and countless exams, you have discovered that you do better on exams when you study with a group.

A. (1) nomothetic; (2) idiographic

B. (1) idiographic; (2) nomothetic

C. both nomothetic

D. both idiographic

B. (1) idiographic; (2) nomothetic

Which one of the following is the best example of a hypothesis?

A. Older people are more likely to vote than younger people.

B. Love is measured by how often people call each other.

C. Gender negatively impacts voting.

D. Domestic violence affects gender inequality.

A. Older people are more likely to vote than younger people.

Based on theories of gender socialization, John thinks that male students get better grades in science classes than female students. He surveyed 200 students on campus, asking about their gender and their grades in biology and chemistry. He found that female students have higher grades than male students. John is using

A. inductive reasoning

B. qualitative analysis

C. deductive reasoning

D. reductionism

C. deductive reasoning

Which one of the following is the best example of a hypothesis

A. Religion affects substance use.

B. The wage gap is affected by gender inequality.

C. Dogs are better than cats.

D. As gender inequality increases, the wage gap increases.

D. As gender inequality increases, the wage gap increases.

A study reported in American Sociological Review (1994) was entitled "Race Differences in Sexual Activity Among Adolescent Women." The independent variable was probably

A. women

B. race

C. sexual activity

D. adolescence

B. race

Which of the following is most clearly a list of variables (as opposed to attributes)?

A. 55, violent, social class

B. occupation, religion, educational level

C. male, Buddhist, educational level

D. social worker, professor, garbage man

B. occupation, religion, educational level

Jenny agreed to participate in a study of friendship patterns. During the study she was asked to name her three best friends. Jenny could not think of anyone to name. She felt awful because she suddenly realized that she had no friends. This research most clearly demonstrates the ethical problem of

A. informed consent

B. avoid deception

C. protect privacy

D. avoid harm

D. avoid harm

Pregnant at age 15, Tammy decided to have the baby. Her parents were upset with her decision and threatened to "cut her off" if she did not complete high school. A difficult pregnancy and embarrassment resulted in her dropping out of school. After the baby was born, her parents said that they would raise the baby but that she would have to leave the house. At age 16, Tammy was on her own and without any money or job market skills. The father of the baby moved to another state and refused to have anything to do with Tammy. She began to work as a sex worker.

This explanation of the causes of sex work is:

A. nomothetic

B. spurious

C. idiographic

D. inductive

E. deductive

C. idiographic

Institutions receiving federal funds are required to review all research with human subjects. What is the one exception?

A. research on dead bodies

B. medical research, as long as it is not harmful

C. research conducted for a class, as long as the findings are not published

D. research on people in prison

C. research conducted for a class, as long as the findings are not published

Ralph conducts an experiment in which he measures aggression in school children at different levels of temperature during recess. The independent variable is ___ and the dependent variable is ___

A. the experiment; the levels of temperature

B. the levels of temperature; the level of aggression

C. the level of aggression; the time of recess

D. the level of aggression; the levels of temperature

E. the time of recess; the level of aggression

B. the levels of temperature; the level of aggression

Professor Smith examines the dating behaviors of college students. Smith decides to track the dating behaviors of college students throughout their college careers. She decides to begin her research using her large enrollment introductory class. She offers extra credit on the final exam for completing her survey, which is done during class. Her research most clearly impinges on

A. avoid harm

B. avoid deception

C. protect privacy

D. informed consent

D. informed consent

_______ explanations for social phenomena describe specific instances in detail, while ______ explanations describe general patterns across cases.

A. nomothetic; idiographic

B. deductive; inductive

C. inductive; deductive

D. ideographic; nomothetic

D. ideographic; nomothetic

The research process is always either deductive or inductive from the beginning to the end.

A. True

B. False

B False

By itself, the 2000 Census exemplifies a study that when compared to another decennial census could be considered a study.

A. cross-sectional; trend

B. trend; panel

C. cross-sectional; cross-sectional

D. trend; cohort

E. cross-sectional; cohort

A. cross-sectional; trend

Professor Root was studying the arrest rates for drunk driving in urban and rural towns of Ohio. It was found that the arrest rate was higher in rural towns. Professor Root concluded that people who live in rural areas are more likely to drive while intoxicated than are people who live in urban areas. Root's conclusion illustrates

A. reductionism

B. reliability

C. validity

D. ecological fallacy

E. overgeneralization

D. ecological fallacy

Professor Stone designs a study to examine the effect of a pregnancy on women's career choices. Stone wants to interview one sample of women during their pregnancy, again immediately after their baby's birth, and then follow up with those women once a year after that for a ten year period. Stone is using a

A. cohort study

B. trend study

C. panel study

D. cross-sectional study

C. panel study

Professor Myth asked respondents whether they had voted. One year later Professor Myth asked the same respondents the same question. Myth found that with repeated applications of the measure, different responses were obtained for the same respondent. This means that the measuring instrument was

A. invalid

B. unreliable

C. unreliable or the attribute of the voting variable changed over time

D. inaccurate

E. imprecise

C. unreliable or the attribute of the voting variable changed over time

Which one of the following is the BEST example of the ecological fallacy?

A. Felisha studied Census tracks for her study on crime, but then wrote up her conclusions in terms of individuals.

B. Mary applied the reasons for why her cousin, Jane, failed her driving test to all persons who failed their driving tests.

C. Catherina studied the ecology of social interaction in her dorm, but focused only on individuals.

D. Sean did not actually study the same individuals in his longitudinal study of worker alienation, but called his study a panel study.

E. Jack mistakenly called his units of analysis organizations, but it was really social artificacts in his study of humor.

A. Felisha studied Census tracks for her study on crime, but then wrote up her conclusions in terms of individuals.

Professor Johnson has developed a new composite variable measuring social deviance, which ranges from a value of 1 (no deviance) to 5 (very deviant). Professor Johnson's scale would be an example of a(n):

A. ratio variable

B. dichotomous variable

C. nominal variable

D. ordinal variable

D. ordinal variable

Joshua designs a survey about philanthropy which asks the following question: "How much money do you donate to charitable organizations on average each year?" At what level is Joshua measuring philanthropy?

A. nominal

B. ordinal

C. ratio

D. conceptual

C. ratio

After Professor Johnson analyzes 1,000 respondents, he decides that his measure is not really capturing the meaning of social deviance. He is concerned about

A. reliability

B. validity

C. accuracy

D. precision

B. Validity

Sarah suggests to Joshua that the survey question should be re-phrased as "Do you give money to charitable organizations? Yes or No." At what level is Sarah measuring philanthropy?

A. ratio

B. nominal

C. conceptual

D. ordinal

B. Nominal

If Joshua decides to go with Sarah's suggestion ("Do you give money to charitable organizations? Yes or No."), which criterion of measurement quality is he potentially sacrificing?

A. reliability

B. validity

C. accuracy

D. precision

D. Precision

Joshua theorizes that certain states in the "Bible belt" have higher rates of charitable giving than others. He also theorizes that rates of charitable giving in all states declined during the recession. In order to test these hypotheses, he finds the "average percent of income given to charity" for each state in 2005 and 2010 from the "Chronicle of Philanthropy." This is a

A. cohort study

B. panel study

C. trend study

D. cross-sectional study

C. Trend study

If Joshua examines the "average percent of income given to charity" for each state in 2010 only, this would be a

A. cohort study

B. panel study

C. trend study

D. cross-sectional study

D. cross-sectional study

I overheard two students on campus talking about doing meth over the weekend. Universities in New York must have a high prevalence of drug use. This conclusion illustrates

A. ecological fallacy

B. reductionism

C. overgeneralization

B. reductionism

I overheard a Stony Brook student talking about doing meth over the weekend. Students must do a lot of drugs. This conclusion illustrates

A. ecological fallacy

B. reductionism

C. overgeneralization

C. Overgeneraliation

You try 10 scales at Bed Bath and Beyond. Each one gives you wildly different weights, none of which match the weight from the doctor's office the previous day. Are the scales reliable? Are they valid?

A. reliable and valid

B. not reliable, but valid

C. reliable, not valid

D. neither reliable nor valid

D. neither reliable nor valid

Professor Roku wants to know how different generations adapt and respond to technological change. Every two years, he interviews a sample of people born in the 1970s and a sample of people born in the 2000s. This is a

A. cohort study

B. panel study

C. trend study

D. cross-sectional study

A. Cohort study

Imagine a survey question that asks: "In the last year, how many times have you gone shopping at Target?" At what level is this variable measured?

A. ordinal

B. conceptual

C. ratio

D. nominal

C. Ratio

Ivan decides that the preceding question should be changed to "Have you shopped at Target in the last year?" At what level is this variable measured?

A. ordinal

B. conceptual

C. ratio

D. nominal

D. Nominal

Comparing nominal information and ratio information, which criterion of measurement quality is Ivan sacrificing by changing the original survey (Ratio to Nominal)

A. precision

B. reliability

C. validity

D. accuracy

A. Precision

Ivan distributed a survey about consumerism to 100 people. He used "Have you shopped at Target in the last year?" and "In the last year, how many times have you gone shopping at Target?". Which criterion of measurement quality should he be worried about?

A. precision

B. reliability

C. validity

D. accuracy

C. Validity

Two basketball players are in my class and they don't study. Basketball players don't take academics seriously.

A. reductionism

B. reliability

C. validity

D. ecological fallacy

E. overgeneralization

E. Overgeneralization

The Miami Heat had the most points in the 2012 NBA Finals. The leading scorer must have been on the Heat.

A. reductionism

B. reliability

C. validity

D. ecological fallacy

E. overgeneralization

D. Ecological fallacy

I have a list of the top players in the NBA, so I can predict which team is going to win the championship.

A. reductionism

B. reliability

C. validity

D. ecological fallacy

E. overgeneralization

A. Reductionism

There's a high correlation between professors per capita and alcohol sales in American cities. My professor probably drinks a lot.

A. reductionism

B. reliability

C. validity

D. ecological fallacy

E. overgeneralization

D. Ecological fallacy

I had an alcoholic professor once. I think professors drink too much.

A. reductionism

B. reliability

C. validity

D. ecological fallacy

E. overgeneralization

E. Overgenerlization

Professors at SBU drink a lot. Port Jeff, Setauket, and SB must have the highest alcohol sales in the state.

A. reductionism

B. reliability

C. validity

D. ecological fallacy

E. overgeneralization

A. Reductionsim

Professor Jones is studying gender inequality in employment. In 2005 and in 2010 he collected a national sample of persons who graduated high school in 1970.

A. cohort study

B. trend study

C. panel study

D. cross-sectional study

A. cohort study

Professor Jones is studying gender inequality in employment. In 2005, he collected a nationally representative sample of Americans. In 2008 and 2011, he contacted the subjects from his original sample.

A. cohort study

B. trend study

C. panel study

D. cross-sectional study

C. panel study

Professor Burroway studies the relationship between school enrollment and HIV prevalence rates across African countries in 2015.

A. cohort study

B. trend study

C. panel study

D. cross-sectional study

D. cross-sectional study

Professor Burroway studies the relationship between school enrollment and HIV prevalence rates across African countries in 2013, 2015, 2017.

A. cohort study

B. trend study

C. panel study

D. cross-sectional study

B. Trend study

You survey this class on opinions about US involvement in foreign wars.

A. cohort study

B. trend study

C. panel study

D. cross-sectional study

D. cross-sectional study

You download data from the General Social Survey (GSS) for every year since 1960. You compare attitudes toward US involvement in foreign wars among the lower and upper classes.

A. cohort study

B. trend study

C. panel study

D. cross-sectional study

B. trend study

After graduation, you contact the members of this class and ask them about US involvement in foreign wars again.

A. cohort study

B. trend study

C. panel study

D. cross-sectional study

C. panel study

You collect a national sample of people who were young adults during the Vietnam War and a national sample of people who were young adults during the Iraq War. You ask them questions about US involvement in foreign wars. In five years, you plan to collect another national sample of people who were young adults during the same eras to ask them similar questions.

A. cohort study

B. trend study

C. panel study

D. cross-sectional study

A. cohort study

Numbers of mistakes on one's driving test

A. nominal

B. ordinal

C. ratio/interval

D. conceptual

C. ratio/interval

Answer to the question "How good of a driver are you? Bad drive/ good driver/ very good driver"

A. nominal

B. ordinal

C. ratio/interval

D. conceptual

B. Ordinal

Number of traffic offense points

A. nominal

B. ordinal

C. ratio/interval

D. conceptual

C. ratio/interval

Dollar amount

A. nominal

B. ordinal

C. ratio/interval

D. conceptual

C. ratio/interval

Choice between "high income", "medium income" and "low income"

A. nominal

B. ordinal

C. ratio/interval

D. conceptual

B. Ordinal

Type of income - salary/ dividend/ gift

A. nominal

B. ordinal

C. ratio/interval

D. conceptual

A. Nominal

Household chores being expressed in days per week rather than hours per week THIS VIOLATES ...

A. reliability

B. validity

C. accuracy

D. precision

D. Precision

A person indicating he is 32 and then at the end of the interview when asked again, admitting he is really 40 THIS VIOLATES ...

A. reliability

B. validity

C. accuracy

D. precision

A. Reliability

Your new scale adds 10 pounds to your weight every time you stand on it THIS VIOLATES ...

A. reliability

B. validity

C. accuracy

D. precision

B. Validity

You do a study in which you try to show that astrological predictions don't come true. You have just conducted a survey in which you asked people, among other things, for their year and month of birth. Only afterwards you realize that astrology requires information on the day and hour of birth as well, and that you failed to collect data of sufficient quality. THIS VIOLATES ...

A. reliability

B. validity

C. accuracy

D. precision

D. Precision

IRB

Institutional Review Board, review research in advance to ensure ethical considerations are met. They review all research involving humans

Major Ethical Principles

No harm

avoid deception

informed consent

confidentiality

types of knowledge

scientific

common sense

inductive reasoning

A type of logic in which generalizations are based on a large number of specific observations. OBSERVATIONS FIRST

deductive reasoning

reasoning in which a conclusion is by beginning with a theory and seeing if observations confirm the theory

Operationalization

Approximating the true variables of interests with one that can be measured or tabulated - MAKING SOMETHING CONCRETE

variables

factors that can change in an experiment

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated - CAUSE

dependent variable

The measurable effect or response in which the research is interested. - OUTCOME

good hypothesis

testable and falsifiable - needs to show direction and relationship between variables

null hypothesis

the hypothesis that there is no significant difference between specified populations, any observed difference being due to sampling or experimental error. No relationship between variables.

Type I error (alpha)

Stating that there is an effect when none exists (accepting an experimental hypothesis when the null is true)

Type II error

failing to reject a false null hypothesis

spurious correlation

a relationship between two variables that is actually caused by a third factor. Some other factor that drives both the independent and dependent variables (no correlation)

Levels of Measurement

nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio

nominal

categorical

ordinal

rank, order (no known distance between)

interval/ratio

- interval is time

- ratio is the amount of times

- we know the distance between

correlation

A measure of the relationship between two variables

Criteria for Nomothetic Causality

1. the variables must be correlated (relationship)

2. the cause takes place before the effect (time order)

3. the variables are nonspurious

why might we vary classical design?

to eliminate the effects of testing

when we eliminate an aspect of the experimental design (i.e. pretest), we lose the ability to establish causality

quasi-experimental design

An experiment that does not require random assignment to conditions (usually because of research limitations)

natural experiments vs lab experiments

natural experiment - in the field/world; have more eternal validity

internal validity

the degree to which changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable

threats:

-selection bias

-(experimental) mortality

-measurement errors

-testing errors

-history (things that happen out in the world)

external validity

the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people

units of analysis

The what or whom being studied. In social science research, the most typical units of analysis are individual people.

units of observation

-Where you collect the data

-Very often the same as the unit of analysis - but not always

-how the data is aggregated and analyzed*

ecological fallacy

INDIVIDUAL TO GROUP - an error in reasoning in which incorrect conclusions about individual-level processes are drawn from group-level data

reductionism

BIG TO SMALL - the reduction of complex systems to simpler components that are more manageable to study

Overgeneralization

SMALL TO BIG - What is true for one individual is not necessarily true for all individuals. What is true for one case, is not true for all cases.

validity

The ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure

Reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results

precision

a measure of how close a series of measurements are to one another

Accuracy

A description of how close a measurement is to the true value of the quantity measured.

cross-sectional study

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time (one point of time)

longitudinal study

research in which people are restudied and retested over a long period (over time)

time-series/trend studies

different people over time

panel studies

same people over time

cohort studies

the study of a group of people who share a common characteristic (usually time element) and move forward in time as a unit

experimental design

A design in which researchers manipulate an independent variable and measure a dependent variable to determine a cause-and-effect relationship

elements:

-hypothesis

-random assignment

-stimulus

-pre-test

-post-test

Why is random assignment important?

- used to eliminate confounding/extraneous/spurious variables

- ensures equivalence between groups

- eliminates bias