review

Behaviorism Psychology

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

humanistic psychology

historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth

Psychoanalysis/Psychodynamic

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders

Id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

ego

the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.

Superego

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations

projective tests: TAT & Rorschach

a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics. (p. 559)

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)- a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes. (p. 559)

Rorschach inkblot test- the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots. (p. 560)

self-efficacy

An individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.

Raymond Cattell

1905-1998; Field: intelligence; Contributions: fluid & crystal intelligence; 3 domains of personality sphere (personality, ability, & motivation), 16 Personality Factors (personality test)

Abraham Maslow

Humanistic psychologist known for his "Hierarchy of Needs" and the concept of "self-actualization"

Hierachy of needs (Maslow)

physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization

Axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

A node of Ranvier (myelin sheath gap)

A gap between successive segments of the myelin sheath where the axon membrane is exposed.

myelin sheath

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

Thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Dendrites

a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Necleus

organelle that controls all of a cells activities. A center of an cell

Soma

cell body of a neuron

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

occipital lobe

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Broca's area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

resting vs action potential

Membrane potential of an inactive neuron vs. Electro-chemical changes that takes place across the axon membrane; the nerve impulse

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

Rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

Cones

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

just noticeable difference (JND)

The smallest difference in the amount of stimulation that a specific sense can detect.

binocular depth cues

depth cues, such as retinal disparity and

convergence, that depend on the use of two eyes

gate-control theory

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.

vestibular system

a sensory system located in structures of the

inner ear that registers the orientation of the head

opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green.

Ivan Pavlov

discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

John Garcia

Researched taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance.

taste aversion

A classically conditioned dislike for and avoidance of a particular food that develops when an organism becomes ill after eating the food.

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

unconditioned response

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

Albert Bandura

researcher famous for work in observational or social learning including the famous Bobo doll experiment

Bobo doll experiment

nursery school students observed an adult play aggressively (yelling & hitting) with an inflatable clown (Bobo); when children were later allowed to play with the Bobo, those children who witnesses the Bobo doll performed the same aggressive actions and improvised new ways of playing aggressively

Modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

punishment

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

Franz Mesmer (1734-1815)

Austrian philosopher and physician who used magnets on individuals to put them in a trance-like state to get the "universal fluids" back into balance in the body. Came up with idea of "animal magnetism"

Hypnosis

a social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

REM sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

case study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

operational definition

a statement of the procedures used to define research variables

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

Mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

measures of central tendency

mean, median, mode

Stanley Milgram

1933-1984; Field: social psychology; Contributions: wanted to see how the German soldiers in WWII fell to obedience, wanted to see how far individuals would go to be obedient; Studies: Shock Study

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent; change our attitudes instead of our behaviors

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

prejudice

an unjustifiable attitude toward a group and its members; generally involved stereotyped beliefs

Stereotypes

widely held beliefs that people have certain characteristics because of their membership in a particular group

self-fulfilling prophecy

an expectation that causes you to act in ways that make that expectation come true.

mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

diffusion of responsibility

the tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way

Deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

Conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Studied human cognition, how people think and understand. He wondered not just what children knew but how they made sense of the world. Piaget went on to identify four stages of cognitive development.

2nd The Preoperational Stage

children build on object permanence and continue to develop abstract mental processes.

3rd The Concrete Operational Stage

characterized by the development of organized and rational thinking.

4th The Formal Operational Stage

 fourth stage, the period of formal operations, begins at age 12 and extends into adulthood.

Schemas

Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information.

accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

Lawerence Kohlberg

created the most influential theory of moral development by expanding Piaget's theory

Erik Erikson

NeoFreudian, humanistic; 8 psychosocial stages of development: theory shows how people evolve through the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?"

Diana Baumrind

researcher who developed a model of parenting styles that included authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive

Mary Ainsworth

developmental psychology; compared effects of maternal separation, devised patterns of attachment; "The Strange Situation": observation of parent/child attachment

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" (declarative memory)

episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

semantic memory

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information