Exam 2

Cartilage

A resilient tissue found throughout the adult body, including in the external ear, nose, larynx, trachea, intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, and articular discs.

Perichondrium

The connective tissue that surrounds cartilage and resists outward pressure, as well as functions in the growth and repair of cartilage.

Hyaline cartilage

The most abundant type of cartilage, characterized by spherical chondrocytes, collagen fibers, and a ground substance that holds a large amount of water, providing support through flexibility.

Elastic cartilage

Cartilage that contains many elastic fibers, allowing it to tolerate repeated bending. Found in locations such as the epiglottis and cartilage of the external ear.

Fibrocartilage

Cartilage that resists strong compression and strong tension, serving as an intermediate between hyaline and elastic cartilage. Found in locations such as the pubic symphysis, menisci of the knee, and anulus fibrosus.

Appositional growth

The growth of cartilage occurs when chondroblasts in the surrounding perichondrium produce new cartilage. Growth of a bone by adding bone tissue to its surface

Interstitial growth

The growth of cartilage that occurs when chondrocytes within the cartilage divide and secrete new matrix.

Bones

Contain several types of tissues, including bone connective tissue, nervous tissue, blood connective tissue, cartilage in articular cartilages, and epithelial tissue lining blood vessels. They serve functions such as support, movement, protection, mineral storage, blood cell formation, and energy metabolism.

Bone tissue

Composed of organic components (cells, fibers, and ground substance) and inorganic components (mineral salts). The organic components contribute to flexibility and tensile strength, while the inorganic components provide exceptional hardness and resistance to compression.

Osteogenic cells

Stem cells in bone that differentiate into osteoblasts.

Osteoblasts

Cells that actively produce and secrete bone matrix (osteoid). Cells responsible for bone deposition

Osteocytes

Mature bone cells that maintain the bone matrix.

Osteoclasts

Cells responsible for the resorption of bone. Cells that erode trabeculae and remove bone tissue. Cells responsible for bone reabsorption

Long bones

Bones that are longer than they are wide, consisting of a shaft (diaphysis) and ends (epiphyses).

Short bones

Roughly cube-shaped bones.

Flat bones

Thin and flattened bones, usually curved.

Irregular bones

Bones with various shapes that do not fit into other categories.

Compact bone

The dense outer layer of bone.

Spongy (cancellous) bone

The internal network of bone, consisting of trabeculae (little "beams" of bone) with open spaces filled with marrow.

Diaphysis

The shaft of a long bone.

Epiphyses

The ends of a long bone.

Medullary cavity

The hollow cavity within the diaphysis, filled with yellow marrow.

Periosteum

The membrane that covers the external surface of bones.

Endosteum

The membrane that lines the medullary cavity and contains osteogenic cells.

Bone markings

Surface features of bones that reflect stresses on them, including projections for muscle attachment, surfaces that form joints, and depressions and openings.

Osteons

Long cylindrical structures in compact bone that function in support and resemble rings of a tree in cross-section.

Lamellae

Concentric layers of bone matrix within osteons.

Central canal

The canal in the center of an osteon that contains blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves.

Perforating canals

Canals that connect the central canals of different osteons and allow for the passage of blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves.

Canaliculi

Tiny channels that connect lacunae (spaces containing osteocytes) within an osteon, allowing for the exchange of nutrients and waste products.

Spongy bone

Less complex than compact bone, consisting of trabeculae that contain layers of lamellae and osteocytes.1. Ossification (osteogenesis):Bone tissue formation

Membrane bones

Bones formed directly from mesenchyme

Intramembranous ossification

Process of bone formation in membrane bones

Endochondral ossification

Process of bone formation in bones that initially develop from hyaline cartilage

Epiphyseal plates

Cartilage areas in growing bones where quick and efficient growth occurs

Chondroblasts

Cartilage cells that divide quickly at the top of the epiphyseal plate stacks

Calcified cartilage

Cartilage that has been signaled to calcify by older chondrocytes

Trabeculae

Long spicules of calcified cartilage on the diaphysis side

Postnatal growth

Growth of bones after birth, including lengthening and widening

Epiphyseal fusion

Process where the diaphysis and epiphysis of a bone fuse, stopping lengthening

Hormonal regulation of bone growth

The role of growth hormone, thyroid hormone, and sex hormones in promoting bone growth

Bone remodeling

Continuous process of bone deposit and removal

Repair of bone fractures

Treatment methods for simple and compound fractures, including reduction

Osteoporosis

Condition characterized by low bone mass and increased bone reabsorption

Axial skeleton

Consists of the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage.

Appendicular skeleton

Consists of the upper and lower limbs.

Joints

Also called articulations, they connect bones together.

Skull

The body's most complex bony structure, formed by cranial and facial bones.

Cranial bones

Bones that enclose and protect the brain and provide attachment sites for some head and neck muscles.

Facial bones

Bones that form the framework of the face and cavities for sense organs. Unpaired bones include the mandible and vomer, while paired bones include the maxillae, zygomatic bones, nasal bones, lacrimal bones, palatine bones, and inferior nasal conchae.

Cranial fossae

Prominent bony ridges that divide the skull into distinct areas.

Foramina, canals, and fissures

Openings in the skull that provide passage for important structures like the spinal cord and blood vessels.

Parietal bones

Form the superior and lateral parts of the skull.

Sutures

Joints between cranial bones, such as the coronal, sagittal, and lambdoid sutures.

Frontal bone

Forms the forehead and roofs of the orbits.

Occipital bone

Forms the posterior portion of the cranium and cranial base.

Temporal bones

Lie inferior to the parietal bones and form the inferolateral portion of the skull.

Sphenoid bone

Spans the width of the cranial floor and is the "keystone" of the cranium.

Ethmoid bone

Lies between the nasal and sphenoid bones and forms part of the nasal septum.

Mandible

The lower jawbone, the largest and strongest facial bone, and the only movable bone of the skull.1. Condylar process: that articulates with the temporal bone.

Ramus

The vertical part of the mandible that connects to the condylar process.

Maxillary bones

Bones of the upper jaw that articulate with all other facial bones except the mandible.

Maxillary sinuses

The largest paranasal sinuses located within the maxillary bones.

Keystone bones

The maxillary bones, which are considered the central and most important bones of the face.

Zygomatic bones

Bones that form the lateral wall of the orbits.

Nasal bones

Bones that form the bridge of the nose.

Lacrimal bones

Bones located in the medial orbital walls.

Palatine bones

Bones that complete the posterior part of the hard palate.

Vomer

Bone that forms the inferior part of the nasal septum.

Inferior nasal conchae

Thin, curved bones that project medially from the lateral walls of the nasal cavity.

Nasal cavity

Air-filled space within the skull that is lined with mucous membrane.

Paranasal sinuses

Air-filled sinuses located within the frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid, and maxillary bones.

Hyoid bone

The only bone in the body that does not directly articulate with any other bone, and acts as a movable base for the tongue.

Vertebral column

The series of bones that surround and protect the spinal cord and transmit the weight of the trunk to the lower limbs.

Anterior and posterior longitudinal ligaments

Ligaments that hold the vertebral column in place.

Cervical vertebrae

The seven vertebrae of the neck region, which are smaller and lighter than other vertebrae.

Thoracic vertebrae

The twelve vertebrae of the chest region, which articulate with the ribs. The vertebrae of the chest region that articulate with the ribs and have heart-shaped bodies.

Lumbar vertebrae

The five vertebrae of the lower back region, which have thick and robust bodies, thin and tapered transverse processes, and thick and blunt spinous processes.1. Vertebral foramina:Triangular openings in the vertebrae that allow for the passage of the spinal cord.

Sacrum

Five fused bones located inferior to the lumbar vertebrae. The fusion of five vertebrae that shapes the posterior wall of the pelvis.

Coccyx

The bone located inferior to the sacrum. The "tailbone" formed from the fusion of three to five vertebrae.

Curvatures of the spine

The natural curves of the vertebral column that increase its resilience.

Nucleus pulposus

The gelatinous inner sphere of an intervertebral disc that absorbs compressive stresses.

Annulus fibrosus

The outer rings of an intervertebral disc formed of ligament and inner rings formed of fibrocartilage.

Body

The main part of a vertebra.

Vertebral arch

The structure that surrounds the vertebral foramen.

Vertebral foramen

The opening in the vertebra through which the spinal cord passes.

Spinous process

The posterior projection of a vertebra.

Transverse process

The lateral projection of a vertebra.

Superior and inferior articular processes

The processes of a vertebra that articulate with adjacent vertebrae.

Intervertebral foramina

The openings between adjacent vertebrae through which spinal nerves pass.

Atlas

The first cervical vertebra (C1) that lacks a body and supports the skull.

Axis

The second cervical vertebra (C2) that has a body and spinous process and acts as a pivot for rotation of the atlas and skull.

Sacral promontory

The bulge of the first sacral vertebrae into the pelvic cavity.

Sacral foramina

Openings in the sacrum that allow for the passage of spinal nerves.

Thoracic Cage

The bony framework of the chest that protects thoracic organs and supports the shoulder girdle and upper limbs.

Sternum

The breastbone formed from three sections (manubrium, body, and xiphoid process).

Jugular notch

The central indentation at the superior border of the manubrium.

Sternal angle

A horizontal ridge where the manubrium joins the body of the sternum.

Xiphisternal joint

The fusion point of the sternal body and xiphoid process.

Ribs

Bones that attach to the vertebral column posteriorly and the sternum anteriorly.