PSYA02 (Midterm-Final)

actor-observer bias

one attributes the causes of one’s own behaviour to external causes and the behaviour of others to internal, dispositional causes

affective component of attitudes

emotional aspect of attitudes

altruism

engaging in behaviour to help another, despite the cost / potential risk to self

attitudes

variations in thoughts, ideas and opinions

attribution theory

a framework used to explain the actions of others as the result of either dispositional / situational causes

behaviour moedling

learning to complete a task by simply copying the behaviour of another person

behavioural component of attitudes

actions that reflect support for one’s attitudes

bystander effect

a person in need is less likely to receive help as the number of people who are present increases

cognitive component of attitudes

the thoughts and logic of one’s attitude

cognitive dissonance

when attitudes and behaviours are inconsistent, a state of unease is felt, which the individual is then motivated to reduce

collectivist society

cultures that place emphasis on the group instead of the individual

compliance

a type of social influence where an individual does what someone else want them to do, following a request/ suggestion

confederate

individuals working with the experimenter, unbeknownst to participants

confirmation bias

the tendency to pay attention to information consistent with one’s existing beliefs and ignore / discard information inconsistent with their beliefs

conformity

extent to which persons modify their behaviours to be consistent with the behaviour of the surrounding group

consensus

considers the extent to which an individual’s behaviour resembles that of other persons (high consensus) or varies from others (low consensus)

consistency

whether the behaviour of an individual in a given social situation is similar over time

diffusion of responsibility

in context of bystander effect, as the number of people present increases, the relative level of accountability of each person decreases, when only one person is present, they assume 100% of the responsibility

discrimination

adverse behaviours directed at groups toward which one golds negative and prejudicial beliefs

dispositional/internal causes

when another’s behaviour is assumed to be a result of their personality traits and characteristics

distinctiveness

whether a person behaves in a similar manner across variety of situations

escalation of commitment

the more time one remains in an interpersonal relationship or as a member of a group, despite experiencing negative outcome, the more difficult it is to leave the group

false consensus effect

an overestimation regarding the extent that others share our beliefs

first impression

tendency for our initial impression that we have about other persons to be rapid and enduring

fundamental attribution error

tendency to attribute the behaviour of others to internal/dispositional causes rather that external/environmental causes

groupthink

faulty decision making that occurs when high degree of conformity and group cohesion are highly valued, to the exclusion of opposing information and ideas

heterogeneous

when group members are diverse and possess a mix of different characteristics

homogeneous

when members of a group are highly similar

hostile aggression

violent behaviour whose sole purpose is inflicting harm on another living creature

impression formation

process by which a person formulates either positive/negative opinions and feelings about another person/group

in-group

group that a person belongs to; is perceived to be superior to other groups

individualistic society

cultures that place emphasis on the individual rather than the group

instrumental aggression

violent behaviour that is purposeful nad is a means to achieve some goal

mere exposure effect

the more time and experience that we have to someone is associated with an increased liking of that person

mutual interdependence

the need for individuals /groups to work together toward a common goal

nuremberg code

ethical guidelines that were designed to protect the rights of participants in research, which was a byproduct of the release of gruesome details of experimentation done on innocent men, women and children during the reign of nazi germany

obedience to authority

when people perceived as authority figures are capable of getting high levels of cooperation in tasks designed to directly harm other or cause severe pain in another without the use of coercion

out-group

the group that a person does not belong to. members of the out-group are assumed to be highly homogeneous

prejudice

learned, negative attitudes/opinions that a person has towards certain groups

primacy effect

initial information learned about another person has the strongest effect on impression formation, which is most pronounced with the initial information is negative

prosocial behaviours

helping others without the expectation of anything in return

realistic conflict theory

intergroup conflict that is created when 2 or more groups are competing over real/perceived scarce resources

reciprocal altruism

engaging in what appears to be prosocial behaviours with the expectation of getting something in return

reciprocity norm

the idea that if others help us, then we should provide something in return

scapegoat

refers to the tendency to blame a less powerful person/group for one’s own problems, often leads to feelings of prejudice, extreme dislike and malice towards the person / group being blamed

self-fulfilling prophecy

when expected outcomes regarding the actions of others are more likely to occur because individuals unwittingly act in ways to being about the behaviour

self-serving bias

attributing one’s successes to internal causes and one’s failures to external causes

situational/external causes

whether another’s behaviours is assumed to be a result of environmental causes that are beyond one’s control

social infleucne

process by which our thoughts and actions are strongly influenced by the presence of others

social learning

learning behaviours and skills by watching others in those behaviours

social norms

prescribed behaviours that vary across context, culture and time

social script

learned behaviours that are expected across a variety of situations

stereotype threat

occurs when a person/group experiences significant fear of confirming negative expectations about one’s own social group, which ultimately adversely affects performance

stereotypes

attitudes and opinions about people based on their group affiliation

addiction

a disorder of the brain reward system characterised by compulsive and repetitive engagement in activities associated with immediate pleasure, even when long term outcomes are negative

case formulation

an explanation of an individual’s mental disorder that is informed by factors such as developmental history, relationship status, physical health and cultural backgrounds

clinical judgement

mental health professional’s use of previous professional experiences to inform clinical decision making

clinical significance

a diagnostic criterion in the DSM-5 that requires that symptoms of a physiological disorder cause distress or impairment in an individual’s daily functioning

compulsions

recurrent, uncontrollable and intrusive behaviours that an individual feels driven to perform, often in response to an obsession

debilitating conditions

a disorder that seriously affects an individual’s ability to carry on with regular activities in their life

deinstitutionalisation

a movement to reduce admissions to psychiatric hospitals, shorten lengths of stay, and improve the treatment that admitted individuals received

diagnosis

formal identification of a psychological disorder

dissociation

mental processes that involve a disruption in an individual’s memory, identity, emotion , perception and behaviour

dysphoria

a state of unease and dissatisfaction with life

encopresis

an elimination disorder diagnosed in children five years or older; marked by repeated defecation in inappropriate places

enuresis

an elimination disorder diagnosed in children ages 5+, marked by repeated urination in inappropriate places

eugenics

A philosophical argument that seeks to improve human society by encouraging reproduction by people with ‘desirable’ qualities (positive eugenics) and discouraging reproduction by people with ‘undesirable’ qualities (negative eugenics)

heterogeneous clinical syndrome

a psychiatric diagnosis that can be made based on several different symptoms, which may or may not overlap from individual to individual

impulse-control

ability to resist urges, temptation, and impulses to engage in behaviours that may bring harm to self or others

manifestation

display, show or demonstration of symptoms of a psychological disorder

negative symptoms

behaviours typically observed in healthy individuals that an individual experiencing psychosis does not do

obsessions

recurrent, uncontrollable and intrusive thoughts, fears, urges or images

person-first language

practice of referring to an individual first and their disability second

picky eating

a behaviour in which individuals eat only a certain type of food or refuse to eat foods based on colour, smell, texture

positive symptoms

behaviours that were not present before the onset of a psychotic disorder

prevalence rate

an indication of how widespread a psychological disorder is within a specific population

sexual orientation

an enduring pattern of romantic or sexual attraction to others that often begins in early adolescence, such as gay, straight, bisexual

social withdrawal

avoidance of people and or activities that were once enjoyable

societal pressures

social expectations that influence how individuals behave and respond to their environment

somatic

refers to something that is specifically related to the body and not the mind

spectrum

a continuum used to classify the level of impairment of a psychological disorder

stigma

disapproval, poor treatment, discrimination or isolation due to being different

suicide

act of ending one’s own life

vicarious

experienced by watching, listening, reading about someone else doing something

withdrawal

Symptoms of distress, restlessness, and irritability associated with reduction or discontinuation of an addictive substance or behavior

acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT)

a form of therapy that involves embracing and accepting our thoughts and feelings instead of immediately trying to change them

applied behaviour analysis (ABA)

goal of this type of behaviour therapy is to reduce inappropriate behaviours and increase effective communication, adaptive learning and appropriate social behaviours

atypical antipsychotic

a group of the second generation of antipsychotic drugs used to treat psychotic disorders, they act on both dopamine and serotonin in the brain

barbiturates

a group of drugs that cause sedation and induce sleep, historically prescribed for anxiety disorder

behaviour modification

process of changing problematic behaviours

benzodiazepines

a group of drugs primarily used for treating anxiety, these drugs are known for being fast-acting and also highly addictive

cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)

a model for therapy asserting that thoughts and perceptions influence feelings and behaviors

cognitive distortions

patterns of negative automatic thoughts that can become pervasive and contribute to psychological disorder, there are several cognitive distortions including-all-or- nothing thinking discounting the positive and catastrophizing

cognitive restructuring

a therapeutic process in which patients learn to identify their cognitive distortions, dispute negative thoughts and develop alternate, more positive and rational thoughts

cognitive therapy

a form of therapy that treats psychological disorders by teaching thought-management techniques to dispel negative thinking patterns cot

cognitive triad

beck’s cognitive triad represents an individual’s belief system about the self, the world, and the future that can make them more or less susceptible to depression

contingency management

a form of behavior modification which includes the use of tangible rewards to reinforce appropriate behaviors

couple’s therapy

a treatment option that involves a couple meeting with a therapist to help resolve difficulties within their relationship

effectiveness

the ability for research to produce desired outcomes based on research applied in the real-world settings and populations

efficacy

the ability for research to produce desired outcomes based on research protocols that are strictly controlled