Motivation, Emotion & Personality

AP Psych Unit 7

Personality

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

Psychodynamic theories

Theories that explain behavior and personality in terms of unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences

unconscious

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.

Psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

free association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing

Id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

ego

the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.

Superego

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations

psychosexual stages

the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones

Oedipus complex

according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father

Freud's Psychosexual Stages

the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones

identification

the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos

Fixation

in psychoanalytic theory, according to Freud, a lingering focus on pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved

defense mechanisms

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

Repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

collective unconscious

Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

founder of psychoanalysis, a controversial theory about the workings of the unconscious mind

Alfred Adler

1870-1937; Field: neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; Contributions: basic mistakes, style of life, inferiority/superiority complexes, childhood influences personality formation; Studies: Birth Order

Karen Horney (1885-1952)

Neo-Freudian who found psychoanalysis negatively biased toward women and believed cultural variables are the foundation of personality development

Carl Jung (1875-1961)

A neo-freudian who shared Freud's emphasis on unconscious processes. Personal Unconscious: part of unconscious mind containing an individual's thoughts & feelings. Believed in the collective unconscious: part of the unconscious inherited & common to all members of a species. Described the five main Archetypes.

projective test

a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes

Rorschach inkblot test

the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots

terror management theory

a theory of death-related anxiety; explores people's emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death

self

in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions

spotlight effect

overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us)

self-efficacy

one's sense of competence and effectiveness

self-esteem

one's feelings of high or low self-worth

Dunning-Kruger Effect

a cognitive bias in which unskilled people make poor decisions and reach erroneous conclusions, but their incompetence denies them the metacognitive ability to appreciate their mistakes. Accounts for why low-skilled individuals are prone to greater overconfidence than are higher-skilled persons (in a particular area).

self-serving bias

a readiness to perceive oneself favorably

narcissism

excessive self-love and self-absorption

Individualism

giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications

Collectivism

giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly

group identification

a feeling of belonging to a certain group of people based on a set of values and an assurance of security

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.

emotional stability-instability

emotionally stable people react calmly because their autonomic nervous systems are not so reactive as those of emotionally unstable/neurotic people

Extraversion/Introversion

The extent to which people are social or unsocial, talkative or quiet, affectionate or reserved (more social, talkative, affectionate)

personality inventory

a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.

empirically derived test

a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups

Big Five Personality Traits

openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

person-situation controversy

the question of whether behavior is caused more by personality or by situational factors

humanistic theories

theories that view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth

hierarchy of needs

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active

self-actualization

according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential

self-transcendence

according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self

unconditional positive regard

a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

social-cognitive perspective

views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context.

behavioral approach

focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development

reciprocal determinism

the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment

Abraham Maslow

Humanistic psychologist known for his "Hierarchy of Needs" and the concept of "self-actualization"

Carl Rogers

1902-1987; Field: humanistic; Contributions: founded person-centered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard, fully functioning person

Albert Bandura

social-congnitive; personality comes from observing others and modeling ourselves after them

William James-Carl Lange theory of emotion (1884)

Emphasizes the physiological determinants of emotion. According to this view, different patterns of autonomic activation lead to the experience of different emotions. People assume that their heart is racing because they're fearful, but this theory asserts that they're fearful because their heart is racing. Experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli.

Walter Cannon-Philip Bard theory of emotion (1934)

argues that emotion occurs when the thalamus sends signals simultaneously to the cortex and to the autonomic nervous system. The cortex creates the conscious experience of emotion. The autonomic nervous system creates the visceral arousal.Emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and the subjective experience of emotion.

Stanley Schachter's Two-Factor theory of emotion

(1) autonomic arousal and (2) cognitive interpretation of arousal. Argued that people look to external rather than internal cues to differentiate and label their specific emotions. Emotions have two ingredients physical arousal and cognitive appraisal. Arousal fields emotion: cognition challenges it.

Zajonc-LeDoux theory of emotion

Some embodied responses happen instantly without conscious appraisal. We automatically feel startled by certain things or like certain things before labeling them.

Lazarus theory of emotion

Cognitive appraisal-sometimes without our awareness-defines emotion.

Facial Feedback hypothesis

the idea that facial expressions can influence emotions as well as reflect them

emotion

a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience

polygraph

a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes).

spillover effect

arousal response to one event spills over into our response to the next event

Caroll Izard

investigated emotion and identified the ten basic emotions: joy, interest-excitement, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, and guilt. contends that other emotions are combos of these 10.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations (pupils dilate, salivation decrease, respiration and heart rate increase)

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy (pupils contract, digestion activates, heart & respiration slows)

Paul Ekman

1934-present; Field: emotion; Contributions: found that facial expressions are universal

universal facial expressions

Happy, sad, surprise, fear, anger, disgust

primary emotions

Emotions that are present in humans and other animals and emerge early in life - proposed by Darwin as a survival mechanism

Paul Ekman and Wallace Friesen

In a series of cross-cultural studies found that people can identify six or so basic emotions from facial expressions

display rules for emotion

cultural rules specifying what emotions should and should not be expressed under what circumstances (individualistic countries more expressive than collectivist)

Gender, Emotion, and Nonverbal Behavior

women are much more empathetic and sensitive to emotion then men (women are better at picking up on how people are feeling than men) ; women's increased adeptness to understand emotion is tied to their nurturing instincts ; anger strikes most people as a more masculine emotion

facial feedback hypothesis

The hypothesis that emotional expressions can cause the emotional experiences they signify

behavior feedback effect

the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others' thoughts, feelings, and actions

Stressor

an event or situation that causes stress

stress reaction

physical and emotional response to a stressor

Stress

the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging

Kurt Lewin

social psychology; German refugee who escaped Nazis, motivational conflicts theory about decision making (approach/approach, avoidance-avoidance & approach avoidance), argued the democratic style of leadership is the most productive; studied effects of 3 leadership styles on children completing activities

Motivational Conflicts

approach-approach, approach-avoidance, avoidance-avoidance

approach-approach conflict

Conflict that results from having to choose between two attractive alternatives

approach-avoidance conflict

conflict occurring when a person must choose or not choose a goal that has both positive and negative aspects

avoidance-avoidance conflict

Conflict that results from having to choose between two distasteful alternatives

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion.

Hans Selye

(1907-1982) Psychologist who researched a recurring response to stress that he called the general adaptation syndrome

tend and befriend

under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend)

health psychology

a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine

Psychoneuroimmunology

the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health

behavioral medicine

an interdisciplinary field that integrates behavioral and medical knowledge and applies that knowledge to health and disease

Lymphocytes

The two types of white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system: B lymphocytes form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections; T lymphocytes form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances.

Coronary Heart Disease (CHD)

the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries

Type A

Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people

Type B

Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people

Catharsis

in psychology, the idea that "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges

Friedman and Rosenman

conducted 9-year longitudinal study of heart attack risk among males; found personality (Type A) to predict vulnerability to heart disease

explanatory style

a person's habitual way of explaining events either optimistically or pessimistically, typically assessed along three dimensions: internal/external, stable/unstable, and global/specific

aerobic exercise

sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness; may also alleviate depression and anxiety

mindfulness meditation

a reflective practice in which people attend to current experiences in a nonjudgmental and accepting manner

subjective well-being

self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality of life.

feel-good, do-good phenomenon

people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood

positive psychology

the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive