Intermediate Physiology Test 1

What is physiology?

the study of biological function. In terms of normal function of cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and organism. How mechanisms work. The cause and effect sequences. Derived from scientific experiments.

What are the levels of organization?

molecule, cell, tissue, organ, system, and organism

What is molecule?

microscopic level

what is a cell?

the basic unit of structure and function of living things.

What is a tissue?

group of cells with similar structure and function

What is an organ?

A group of two or more tissues into structure and functional units

What is a system?

A group of organs that work together to perform related functions.

What is an organism?

systems working together in coordination

What are the four major tissue categories?

Muscle, nervous, epithelial, and connective

What is the muscle tissues?

Specialized for contraction

What are the three types of muscle tissues?

skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle

What is the skeletal muscle

voluntary muscle, this can be consciously controlled

What is the cardiac muscle

Involuntary muscle, it can't be consciously controlled

What is the smooth muscle

it is found in the walls of digestive, urinary, and reproductive organs, blood vessels, and bronchioles of the lungs.

What is the nerve tissue?

1. It is found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.

2. it is composed of neurons and neuroglia.

3. their function is communication

What is epithelial tissue?

1. A tissue that forms the membranes that cover body surfaces, it lines the inside of hollow organs and glands.

How is epithelial tissue classified?

By the number of layers

What is simple epithelium?

it has one layer and is specialized for transport of substances

What is stratified Epithelium?

It is composed of multiple layers and provides protection.

What is connective tissue?

It is characterized by a matrix made up of protein fibers, extracellular material, and specialized cells.

What is the function of the connective tissue?

connects and supports the body

What are the four major parts of the connective tissue?

connective tissue proper, cartilage, bone, and blood

What is an organ composed of?

An organ is composed of 2 or more tissues that serve different functions in the organ.

What is the largest organ in the body?

skin

How many organ systems do humans have?

11

what are the 11 organ systems?

integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, respiratory, urinary, reproductive, alimentary, circulatory, immune

What is the function of the integumentary system and what organs does it include?

1. Protection, thermoregulation

2. Skin, hair, nails

What is the function of the nervous system and what organs does it include?

1. regulation of other body systems

2. brain, spinal cord, nerves

What is the function of the endocrine system and what organs does it include?

1. Secretion of regulatory molecules called hormones.

2. Hormone-secreting glands, such as the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal glands.

What is the function of the skeletal system and what organs does it include?

1. Movement and support

2. Bones and Cartilages

What is the function of the muscular system and what organs does it include?

1. Movement of the skeleton

2. Skeletal Muscles

What is the function of the circulatory system and what organs does it include?

1. Movement of blood and lymph

2. Heart, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels

What is the function of the Immune system and what organs does it include?

1. Defense of the body against invading pathogens

2. Red bone marrow, lymphoid organs

What is the function of the respiratory system and what organs does it include?

1. Gas exchange

2. lungs, airways

What is the function of the urinary system and what organs does it include?

1. Regulation of blood volume and composition

2. kidneys, ureters, urethra

What is the function of the alimentary system and what organs does it include?

1. breakdown of food into molecules that enter the body

2. Mouth, stomach, intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas

What is the function of the reproductive system and what organs does it include?

1. Continuation of the human species

2. Gonads, external genitalia, associated glands and ducts

What is homeostasis?

the dynamic constancy of the body's internal environment.

What is the external environment of the body?

The space surrounds the body

What is the internal environment of the body?

The extracellular fluid surrounding the cells of the body.

What factors affect homeostasis.

body temperature, blood volume, blood sugar

Steps of a feedback system

1. stimulus produces change in variable

2. receptor detects change

3. input: information sent along afferent pathway to control center

4. output: information sent along efferent pathway to effector

5. response of effector feeds back to reduce the effect of stimulus and returns variable to homeostatic level

What is negative feedback?

A response to a change in the body that counteracts or opposes the initial change.

What is positive feedback?

Feedback that increases the output of a process. It is only stopped by an event outside the system.

What are the principal parts of the cells?

plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus

What is the plasma membrane?

A flexible layer, separating from the external environment of the cell, selectively permeable, communication

What is cytoplasm?

A fluid part of cell (cytosol) and little organelles that do the functions

What is the nucleus?

It contains DNA and directs cell activities

What is the plasma membrane?

a selective barrier that allows sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients, and waste to service the volume of every cell

What makes up the plasma membrane?

1. A hydrophobic center with a double membrane restricting the movement of water, water-soluble molecules, and ions.

2. An internal and external environment of the cell are communicating through the membrane proteins

3. Membranes are fluid structures.

4. Proteins and phospholipids are not trapped in the membrane but constantly move laterally.

What substances move through the plasma membrane?

Small, hydrophobic substances pass freely through the phospholipid bilayer. this includes small lipid-soluble molecules and gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide.

What is the ion channel?

transport protein through which ions can pass

What is a carrier protein?

a transport molecule, change shape to allow the molecule to pass across the membrane

What is a receptor?

protein that detects a signal molecule and performs an action in response

What is an enzyme (integral and peripheral)

It catalyzes reaction inside outside cell

What is a linker?

It anchors filaments inside and outside the plasma membrane, providing structural stability and shape for the cell.

What is a cell identity marker?

It distinguishes the cells from anyone else's

What are the other components of the membrane?

Carbohydrates and cholesterol.

What are carbohydrates in the membrane?

They are attached to lipids and to proteins, they serve as antigens and interactions with regulatory molecules.

What is cholesterol in the membrane?

It gives flexibility to the membrane.

What is phagocytosis?

Cell eating

What do pseudopods do?

They engulf bacteria, dead cells, or other organic materials and then fuse together to form a food vacuole.

How does phagocytosis work?

Cell membrane sends out finger-like projections called pseudopods that surround the material and eventually enclose it within the cytoplasm in a vesicle (called phagocytotic vesicle). Lysosomes may then fuse with the vesicle to digest the particles within it.

Why is phagocytosis important?

Body defense, inflammation, and apoptosis

What is endocytosis?

process by which the cell takes in materials that are too large to pass through

How does endocytosis work?

Plasma membrane surrounds material, edges of membranes meet, membranes fuse and form vesicle

What is receptor-mediated endocytosis?

receptor-mediated endocytosis to selectively take up specific molecules or complexes of molecules that cannot diffuse or move through transport proteins

What is exocytosis?

process by which the cell expels materials that are too large to pass through

How does exocytosis work?

molecules are packed by the golgi into golgi vesicles or lysosomes and the vesicles move to the cell surface membrane with the aid of mocrotubules and ATP. they fuse with the plasma membrane releasing contents to the exterior.

What does the cytoplasm contain?

organelles, cytosol, cytoskeleton, and inclusions

What are inclusions?

stored chemical aggregates such as glycogen, melanin, and triglycerides

What is the cytoskeleton?

a network of protein filaments extending throughout the cytosol

What are the types of cytoskeleton?

microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules

What are organelles?

Tiny specialized structures within the cell that have characteristic shapes and perform specific functions in cellular growth, maintenance, and reproduction

What are types of organelles

Ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, mitochondria, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and proteasomes

What is the mitochondria?

power house of the cell and produces and supplies the cell with energy (ATP)

Describe the structure of mitochondria.

It has an inner membrane and external membrane separated by an intermembranous space. The inner membrane is folded into cristae to increase surface area for reactions. The central area is fluid and called the matrix.

What are ribosomes?

site of protein synthesis

What do messenger RNA do?

Takes genetic information to the ribosome so a protein can be assembled. It is very small and found in the cytoplasm or is associated with the granular endoplasmic reticulum. Serves as enzymes called ribozymes and are needed for protein synthesis.

What is the endoplasmic reticulum?

system of membranous passageways from the nuclear membrane to the plasma membrane

What is the granular ER?

has ribosomes embedded on the outer surface, functions in protein synthesis and secretion.

What are the steps to the golgi complex apparatus?

1. Transport vesicles made in rough ER.

2. Transport vesicles move to golgi complex.

3. Protein enter lumen of golgi.

4. Proteins ar modified as they travel through cisternas.

5. Modified proteins are packaged and sorted.

6. Secretory vesicles are formed, bring the protein to the final destination.

What are lysosomes?

Membrane-enclosed vesicles containing digestive enzymes that digest a wide variety of substrates.

What are peroxisomes?

Contains oxidases that helps metabolize amino acids and fatty acids.

What are proteasomes?

protein-degrading machines found in the cytosol

How many nucleus's are in a muscle cell?

Hundreds

What is the nucleus made of?

Two membranes, an out her membrane continuous with rough ER and an inner membrane fused to outer by nuclear pore complexes, this allows small molecules and RNA to move in or out of the nucleus through pores.

What are nucleolus?

Clusters of DNA, RNA, and proteins

What is genetic transcription?

The gene on the DNA is transcribed as messenger RNA, which can leave the nucleus.

What is genetic translation?

The messenger RNA is translated at the ribosome to assemble the proper amino acid sequence.

extracellular environment details

- includes everything located outside the cells

- cells receive nourishment from and release wastes into the environment.

- cells communicated by secreting chemical regulators into the extracellular environment.

Where is out water located in the body?

67% of water is in the intracellular compartment. 33% of water is in the extracellular compartment. In the extracellular compartment, 20% is in blood plasma, 80% is in tissue fluid or interstitial fluid, this connects the intracellular compartment with the blood plasma.

Plasma membrane permeability?

selectively permeable, allows some molecules to cross but not others.

What is passive transport?

Molecules move from higher concentration to lower concentration without using metabolic energy.

What is simple diffusion?

Movement of molecules with no polar molecules or ion and water molecules through specific channels.

What is facilitated diffusion?

Movement of molecules with protein carrier.

What is active transport?

Molecules move from an area of low concentration to high concentration using ATP and specific carrier pumps.

What is osmosis?

diffusion of water

What are the requirements of osmosis?

There must be absolute concentration difference on either side of membrane, the membrane must be less permeable to the solute than to the water.

How does facilitated diffusion work?

It is powered by the random movement of molecules, net movement is from high to low concentration, it requires specific carrier proteins, and transport proteins may always exist in the plasma membrane.