Chapter 2: The Brain and Behavior

What are the key characteristics of the Nervous System?

Complexity (Capability), Integration (Cells Communicating), Adaptability (Plasticity), and Electrochemical Transmission.

What is the role of afferent nerves in the nervous system?

They carry information to the brain.

What is the role of efferent nerves in the nervous system?

They carry information out of the brain and spinal cord.

What comprises the Central Nervous System (CNS)?

The brain and spinal cord.

What is the Peripheral Nervous System?

The network of nerves that connects the brain and the spinal cord to the other parts of the body.

What is the function of the Somatic Nervous System?

It controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles and transmits sensory information from the body to the central nervous system (CNS).

What is the function of the Autonomic Nervous System?

It controls involuntary bodily functions like heart rate, digestion, and breathing, taking information to and from the body’s internal organs.

Which part of the Autonomic Nervous System mobilizes the body for action?

The Sympathetic Nervous System.

Which part of the Autonomic Nervous System calms the body?

The Parasympathetic Nervous System.

What is the body's response to stressors, often called the classic "fight or flight" reaction?

Stress.

What are corticosteroids, released during stress?

Hormones that help the brain focus on what needs to be done now to alleviate (ease) stress.

What is the primary difference between acute and chronic stress?

Acute stress has a defined beginning and end, while chronic stress does not have a well-defined end state and can lead to prolonged autonomic nervous system arousal.

What are the two primary types of cells in the nervous system?

Neurons and glial cells.

What is the main function of neurons?

Handling information processing functions.

What is the main function of glial cells?

Providing support and nutritional benefits to neurons.

Which part of a neuron contains the nucleus?

The cell body.

Which part of a neuron receives information from other neurons?

Dendrites.

Which part of a neuron sends information away from the neuron and contains hundreds of tiny openings or gates?

The axon.

What are the thin cellular membranes that cover the neurons? What is their function?

They’re semi-permeable and open to receive special chemical messengers.

What is the role of the myelin sheath?

The fatty layer encases and insulates most neurons.

What are the key positive ions involved in generating electrical charges in neurons?

Sodium and potassium.

What describes the state of a neuron at rest, with a slightly negative charge inside?

Resting potential (-60 to -75 millivolts).

What term describes the brief switch to a positive charge in a neuron as sodium enters and potassium exits?

Action potential.

What are the small gaps between neurons where communication occurs?

Synapses.

Where are neurotransmitters stored before being released during synaptic transmission?

At the end of the axon.

After flowing across the synaptic gap, where can neurotransmitters go?

They are either received by dendrites or reabsorbed by the originating axon.

Which neurotransmitter is involved in muscle action, learning, and memory, and is deficient in Alzheimer's?

Acetylcholine.

Which neurotransmitter keeps many neurons from firing, and low levels can lead to anxiety?

GABA.

Which neurotransmitter causes neurons to fire and is important in learning and memory?

Glutamate.

Which neurotransmitter inhibits neurons in the CNS but excites cells in the heart, muscle, intestines, and urogenital tract?

Norepinephrine.

Which neurotransmitter helps control voluntary movement, affects sleep, mood, attention, and learning, and is related to extraversion?

Dopamine.

Which neurotransmitter regulates sleep, mood, attention, and learning?

Serotonin.

What are natural opiates that stimulate neurons and act as pain killers?

Endorphins.

Which neurotransmitter triggers love and social bonding and helps trigger lactation in new mothers?

Oxytocin.

How do drugs generally impact behavior concerning neurotransmitters?

They interfere with the operation of neurotransmitters.

What is the concept of a neural network in the brain?

The brain operates as one large information processing system, similar to computer neural networks, where connections are instrumental for proper functioning.

What method involves creating an abnormal disruption in brain tissue to study its function?

Brain Lesioning.

What is an electroencephalograph (EEG) used for?

It records electrical activity in the brain.

What brain imaging technique measures metabolic (glucose and oxygen) changes in the brain?

Positron-Emission Tomography (PET Scans).

What brain imaging technique measures magnetic changes to provide a detailed image?

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI).

What part of the brain is located at the rear of the skull and is the lowest portion of the brain?

Hindbrain

Which hindbrain structure controls vital functions like heart rate and breathing?

The Medulla.

Which hindbrain structure is important for motor coordination?

The Cerebellum.

Which hindbrain structure serves as a bridge between the cerebellum and brain stem and is important for sleep and arousal?

The Pons.

What is the oldest part of the brain, important for alertness and basic survival functions like breathing, blood pressure, and heartbeat?

The Brainstem.

What structure of the brain is located between the hind and forebrain? It relays a lot of auditory and visual information.

Midbrain

Which midbrain structure is responsible for everyday behaviors like walking, sleeping, and turning towards noise?

The Reticular formation.

Which structure of the brain is located at the front and reflects evolutionary changes to the human brain?

Forebrain

Which forebrain system, located under the cerebral cortex, is important for memory and emotion?

The Limbic System.

Which forebrain structure acts as a relay station for sensory information?

The Thalamus.

Which forebrain structure works with the cerebellum and cerebral cortex to coordinate voluntary movements?

The Basal Ganglia (cluster of neurons).

Which small forebrain structure tracks pleasure activities like eating, drinking, and sexual behavior?

The Hypothalamus.

Which forebrain structure (outer layer of the brain) governs thinking, learning, and consciousness?

Cerebral Cortex

Which cerebral lobe, located in the back of the brain, responds to visual stimuli?

The Occipital Lobe.

Which cerebral lobe, located just above the ears, is involved in hearing, language processing, and memory?

The Temporal Lobe.

Which cerebral lobe, located behind the forehead, is involved in personality, intelligence, and control of voluntary muscles?

The Frontal Lobe.

Which cerebral lobe, located at the top and towards the rear, is involved in registering spatial location, attention, and motor control?

The Parietal Lobe.

What highly integrated area makes up 75% of the cerebral cortex, integrating sensory and motor information?

The Association Cortex.

Which area on the left side of the brain is important for speech production?

Broca’s area.

Which area on the left side of the brain is important for comprehending language?

Wernicke’s area.

What bundle of axons connects the two cerebral hemispheres?

The Corpus Callosum.

What is the primary function localized to the left hemisphere of the brain?

Speech and language.

What is the primary function associated with the right hemisphere of the brain?

Processing non-verbal information and emotion.

What system consists of a set of glands that regulate organ activities by releasing hormones into the bloodstream?

The Endocrine System.

Which endocrine gland, located just below the hypothalamus, controls growth?

The Pituitary Gland.

Which endocrine gland, located in the front of neck under larynx, controls the speed of metabolism?

The Thyroid.

Which endocrine gland, located in the front of neck next to thyroid, regulates the calcium levels in blood.

The Parathyroid.

Which endocrine glands regulate mood, energy, and the ability to cope with stress, releasing epinephrine and norepinephrine?

The Adrenal Glands.

Which endocrine gland produces insulin?

The Pancreas.

As long as an injury involves damage, but not destruction, then the brain has a good ability for self-repair. What is collateral sprouting in brain repair?

Healthy axons growing new dendrites to help damaged cells.

What is substitution of function in brain repair?

A damaged area's function being taken over by another area of the brain.

What is neurogenesis?

The generation of new neurons.

Why do brain tissue implants from fetuses have higher success rates?

Fetal brain tissue has extreme plasticity, and neurons are still growing.

What are stem cells, often harvested from frozen embryos, known for in brain repair research?

Their potential for generating new neurons and tissue.

How many chromosomes are found in the nucleus of human cells, aligned in pairs?

46 chromosomes in 23 pairs.

What do DNA strands, contained within chromosomes, carry?

Genetic information.

What is the estimated number of genes in the human genome?

19,000 to 30,000 genes.

What field of genetics involves manipulating genes and mapping genetic structure?

Molecular Genetics.

What research method, exemplified by 'maze bright' and 'maze dull' rats, involves breeding individuals with desired traits?

Selective Breeding.

What method studies genes located near one another in DNA that are more likely to be inherited together?

Genome-Wide Association Method.

What field uses twin studies to examine heredity's influence on behavior?

Behavior Genetics.

What is the difference between a genotype and a phenotype?

A genotype is genetic heritage, while a phenotype is observable characteristics.

What ethical considerations arise from genetic testing services like 23andMe or AncestryDNA?

Issues related to privacy, data ownership, predisposition to diseases, and the use of genetic information.