INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Pax Americana

"Pax Americana" is a term used to describe a period of relative peace and stability that has been attributed to the influence and dominance of the United States in the international system.

• post world war II era

• Cold War

• Economic and Political Influence of the U.S. (f.e. Marshall Plan)

• Nuclear Deterrence : The United States' possession of nuclear weapons and its policy of nuclear deterrence were seen as factors contributing to global stability during the Cold War.

• Promotion of Liberal Democracy

Criticism: While Pax Americana is often associated with stability, it has also faced criticism and controversy. Critics argue that American hegemony can lead to power imbalances, unilateralism, and violations of sovereignty.

What is the Marshall Plan?

The Marshall Plan was an American initiative enacted in 1948 to provide foreign aid to Western Europe. The United States transferred $13.3 billion in economic recovery programs to Western European econ

• After the Truman Doctrine, Secretary of State George Marshall call for plan to resuscitate Europe back to life

• The Marshall Plan (European Recovery Program, ERP) passed in 1948 to give aid to Western Europe

• US transferred over $13 billion (about $130 billion in 2020 terms) for economic recovery

• Goals to rebuild war-torn regions, remove trade barriers, modernize industry, improve European prosperity, and prevent the spread of Communism

• United Kingdom receive 26%, France 18% and West Germany 11%

• Extended to the Soviet Union but SU refused

• Successful in reviving W Europe but deepen US-Soviet rift

• Economic aid give way to military aid – by 1952, 80% of US aid military in natureomies after the end of World War I. Money and Weapons.

Who determines the moral norm in international relations?

• Define politics in moral terms - quest for justice

• Decision making based on not just power but on moral judgement

• Classical and medieval thinkers believe politics involve quest for good of life (public good) which is achieved when community life is “just”

• Classical Greek Philosopher (428-348BC) Plato’s Republic (375BC): fundamental aim of politics is establishment of community justice

CLASSICAL VS MEDIEVAL THINKERS

• Classical thinkers (5th~4th C BC): Socrates→Plato→Aristotle (teacher of Alexander the Great)

  • Focus on the establishment of community justice (The Republic)

• Medieval Christian thinkers (Middle Ages or the Dark Ages, 476 A.D. ~1450)

  • Thomas Aquinas (Italian philosopher of natural law, 1225-1274)

  • Dante Alighieri (Italian poet, 1265-1321)

  • Quest for peace and justice the same, but add religious purpose - faith (difference from classical thinkers)

    • Aquinas: God’s revelation of his standard through nature (eternal law), the scriptures (divine law), and morality (natural law)

    • Justice maximized when rulers apply these norms to political life

MODERN APPLICATION

• American Republic political leaders apply moral standard in implementing domestic and foreign policy

  • Founded on “inalienable right rooted in moral law” – primacy of morality in foreign policy

  • Woodrow Wilson’s moral principles (League of Nations / “14 Points”)

    Spreading of institutionalized democracy

  • Jimmy Carter – similar moral factor in his foreign policy

    • wanting to pull back troops from Korea

CAVEAT

EH Carr : British diplomatic historian warned of the danger in using moral language to clothe national interest

• who determines moral norm?

• 19th century free trade / justification of imperialism

• Imperial Japan’s “Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere” 大東亞共榮圈

  • (Japan POV) Europeans are here and it’s not great

    • no one can fend off these invaders and Japan is the only country that can do it, and that’s what they did

    • this was the logic behind Japanese expansion - creating Asia for Asians

    • this worked in some countries!

• Joseph Rudyard Kipling’s poem The White Man’s Burden (1899)

  • European and American powers had a moral duty to civilize and uplift the peoples of colonized territories.

What are some of the most frequently applied approaches to international relations theory?

Realism / Idealism / Marxism / Capitalism / Constructivism

“The White Man’s Burden”

• Poem written by the British author Joseph Rudyard Kipling and was first published in 1899 in McClure's Magazine.

• Poem about the Philippine-American War (1899-1902) urging the US to assume colonial control of the Philippines as a “mission-of-civilization”

• Moral obligation of the white race to civilize the non-white peoples, incapable of self-government, and bring about progress through colonialism

• The poem is often interpreted as an expression of the ideology of imperialism and colonialism that was prevalent during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It presents a view that European and American powers had a moral duty to civilize and uplift the peoples of colonized territories.

Why was 1949 a bad year for the United States?

• Communist Victory in China: One of the most significant events of 1949 was the victory of communist forces in the Chinese Civil War. The Chinese Communist Party, led by Mao Zedong, established the People's Republic of China on October 1, 1949. The U.S. had supported the Nationalist government in China, and the communist victory was seen as a major setback for U.S. foreign policy in Asia.

• Beginning of the Cold War: The post-World War II period marked the beginning of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union. This ideological and geopolitical struggle had a significant impact on U.S. foreign policy, leading to increased military spending and the development of nuclear weapons.

• Soviet Atomic Bomb: In August 1949, the Soviet Union successfully tested its first atomic bomb. This event intensified the arms race between the U.S. and the USSR, raising concerns about the possibility of nuclear conflict.

• NATO Established: While not a negative event in itself, the establishment of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in April 1949 was a response to the growing threat of Soviet expansion. It signaled the U.S.'s commitment to the defense of Western Europe and its role in containing Soviet influence.

• Korean War Begins: The Korean War began in June 1950, but the tensions and conflicts that led to the war had been building in 1949. The war, which involved U.S. military intervention, was a significant and costly conflict during the early years of the Cold War.

• Diplomatic Challenges:

  • The U.S. faced diplomatic challenges in 1949, including the recognition of the People's Republic of China by some nations, which led to the loss of the U.S.'s representation in China.

  • Additionally, the Soviet blockade of West Berlin in 1948-1949, which was successfully countered by the Berlin Airlift, underscored the growing tensions between the superpowers.

How do Realist and Idealist perspectives differ?

1. REALIST ASSUMPTIONS

   • Pessimistic view of human nature

   • States are the most important actors

   • The international system is anarchic and competitive

   • No actor exists above states – referencing IO and IL

   • All states within the system are unitary, rational actors

   • States pursue self-interest

   • zero sum logic: what you gain is exactly what I lose.

   • Survival of the fittest

   • The priority of power, especially the military power for state security

   • Morality rooted in consequences – ends justify means
     

2. IDEALIST ASSUMPTIONS

   • Optimism of human nature and community life

     • Humans not motivated by self-interest but moral aspirations and pursuit of common good

     • Political structure based on power and authority contrary to common goal

   • Harmonious international relations

     • IR fundamentally peaceful, not anarchic

     • World imperfect harmony and insufficient cooperation – challenge of global society

     • Increase functional interdependence

   • Priority of law and institutions

     • Realists consider international peace and cooperation a by-product of inter-state power relations

   • Priority of moral purpose

     • Moral values in implementing policies

What are some of the most important lessons of the Peloponnesian War? Identify some of the types of theories explaining international behaviour?

1. The Tragedy of Power and Hubris: The Peloponnesian War illustrates how the pursuit of power and the overreach of one's own capabilities can lead to disastrous consequences. Athens, at the height of its power, overestimated its ability to maintain its empire and was eventually defeated by Sparta and its allies.

2. The Destructive Nature of Prolonged Conflict: The war lasted for 27 years and resulted in immense destruction, loss of life, and economic hardship for both sides. This highlights the toll of prolonged conflicts on societies and the need for conflict resolution mechanisms.

3. The Role of Alliances: The war showcased the importance of alliances in shaping international relations. Athens had the Delian League, while Sparta led the Peloponnesian League. These alliances played a critical role in the course and outcome of the war.

4. The Impact of Ideology and Values: The conflict between Athens and Sparta had ideological dimensions. Athens represented democracy and naval power, while Sparta stood for oligarchy and land-based military strength. This ideological clash contributed to the intensity of the war.

5. The Unpredictability of Human Behavior: The war demonstrated the unpredictability of human behavior in times of crisis. Leaders often made decisions based on short-term interests or emotions, leading to unexpected outcomes.

Theories Explaining International Behavior:

1. Realism: Realist theories, as discussed in the previous answer, emphasize the role of power, self-interest, and anarchy in international relations. The Peloponnesian War can be analyzed through a realist lens, as it involved a power struggle and competition for dominance.

2. Liberalism: Liberal theories focus on cooperation, international institutions, and the potential for peace through diplomacy. While the Peloponnesian War was a conflict, liberal theory can still be applied to analyze efforts at conflict resolution and diplomacy during the war.

3. Constructivism: Constructivist theories emphasize the role of ideas, norms, and identities in shaping international behavior. The ideological differences between Athens and Sparta, as well as the perceptions of each other, can be examined through a constructivist perspective.

4. Neoconservatism: Neoconservative theories argue for the promotion of democracy and American exceptionalism in international relations. While this theory is more contemporary, it can be used to analyze how Athens, as a democratic power, sought to spread its system of governance through its empire.

5. Game Theory: Game theory, a mathematical approach to decision-making in strategic situations, can be applied to analyze the strategies and interactions of Athens and Sparta during the war, including the prisoner's dilemma and deterrence theory.

What is the Legacy of the Cold War?

The Cold War had a significant impact on the way Americans saw their country and themselves. It influenced their perspective on the United States’ role in international affairs, both as the presumed champion of democracy and freedom as well as the foil to the Soviet Union. They experienced the fear of apocalyptic weapons as the Nuclear Age dawned. They saw Europe divided between the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) composed of the United States and its allies and the Warsaw Pact, led by the Soviet Union. They went to war in Vietnam, and they also protested that war. They saw the Soviets soar off into space, and they watched their own astronauts follow them, reaching the moon. It was a formative time, especially for the generation of “baby boomers” born after World War II.

NEOLIBERALISM / NEOLIBERAL INSTITUTIONALISM

• Like neorealism, emphasis on global structure in promoting world peace and cooperation

• Illuminate the factors and conditions that facilitate international cooperation without guidance of a central government authority

• What differentiates liberalism and neoliberal institutionalism is that the latter argues that international actors cooperate with each other not because they are innately good, but rather out of the self-interest of each to cooperate

• International institutions and organizations such as UN, NATO, EU can increase aid and cooperation between states

NEOREALISM / STRUCTURAL REALISM

• Same emphasis on state actors, national power, and national security

• But less emphasis on human’s moral dimension

• Priority to global structure

• World’s decentralized, anarchic structure determine state behavior

• Maximize power to reduce vulnerability and promote national interests

• Kenneth Waltz (Man, the State, and War, 1959)

What is Huntington’s View of the Future world in his “Clash of Civilization”?

Samuel Huntington’s “The Clash of Civilizations” (Foreign Affairs, 1993) - thesis that cultural and religious identities will be the primary source of conflict. In the past, world history mainly about the struggles between monarchs, nations and ideologies of Western civilization but post-CW, a new phase where non-Western civilizations factored in the political dynamics of international relations

What are Huntington’s Cultural Fault Lines?

Cultural fault lines, according to Huntington, are the boundaries or areas where different civilizations interact and often clash due to differences in culture, religion, values, and historical experiences. These fault lines can lead to conflicts and tensions between civilizations.

• Fundamental differences over history, language, culture, tradition, and religion cannot easily be overcome

• Smaller world causes rise in “civilization consciousness” – effects of globalization

• Global interdependence heighten the religious commitment as a basis for identity and commitment beyond national boundaries, uniting civilizations

• West vs the re-emergence of non-Western civilizations – decolonization

• Cultural identity less likely to be compromised than political and economic ones

• Rising economic regionalism reinforcing common civilization – EU, NAFTA, ASEAN, TPP, RCEP, OBOR(AIIB), e

• tc.
  
  Huntington identified several key cultural fault lines in his book, including:

1. The West vs. Islam: He argued that the Western world and the Islamic world were on opposite sides of a significant fault line, with historical conflicts and differences in values leading to tensions and clashes.

2. The West vs. Confucian and Sinic cultures: Huntington suggested that the Western world and the Confucian and Sinic cultures, primarily represented by China, had different values and worldviews that could lead to friction.

3. The Orthodox Christian world vs. Islam: He noted that the Orthodox Christian countries of Eastern Europe and the Islamic world shared a cultural fault line, which had been a source of historical conflicts.

4. Latin America: Huntington also considered Latin America as a distinct cultural entity, separate from the Western world, with its own fault lines and challenges.

CRITICISM

• non-western traditions treated as a monolithic grouping

• no distinctive Islamic civilization, let alone a Western civilization

• what about cooperative relationships between states of different civilization brackets?

• Why frame non-Western civilizations against the West only?

What about Francis Fukuyama’s view in “the end of the world”

In his 1989 essay titled "The End of History?" published in the journal The National Interest, Francis Fukuyama famously argued that liberal democracy may constitute the endpoint of mankind's ideological evolution and the "end of history" in terms of the ideological battles and conflicts that had shaped human history up to that point. Fukuyama's thesis was influenced by the profound political changes occurring at the time, including the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe and the apparent triumph of Western liberal democracy.

Fukuyama’s logic: the world reached the 'end of history' in a Hegelian dialectical sense

• Human rights, liberal democracy, and the capitalist free market economy the only remaining ideological alternative in the post-Cold War world

• Universalization of Western Values

• “End-point of mankind's ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government”

• Draws from Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Karl Marx - human history as a linear progression from one socioeconomic epoch to another

→ it’s not a democratic communistic victory - rather it is a liberal democracy which has become the consensus ideology for the majority of nations

How does Fukuyama utilize the Hegelian Dialectic to explain his hypothesis?

1. Thesis (Historical Progression): Fukuyama suggests that human history can be understood as a process of historical progression in which societies and political systems evolve and develop. In this context, the "thesis" represents the historical and ideological starting point, which for Fukuyama is characterized by various forms of political organization and ideological conflicts.

2. Antithesis (Conflict and Ideological Battles): Fukuyama argues that throughout history, there have been conflicts and clashes between different political and ideological systems, including monarchies, authoritarian regimes, fascism, and communism. These conflicts and contradictions represent the "antithesis" in the Hegelian dialectic. According to Fukuyama, the 20th century saw a particularly intense clash between liberal democracy and its ideological rivals, such as communism.

3. Synthesis (Triumph of Liberal Democracy): Fukuyama's hypothesis suggests that the end of the Cold War marked the emergence of a "synthesis" or resolution to the conflicts and contradictions of history. In his view, liberal democracy represented the synthesis—the resolution of ideological battles and the emergence of a political system that combined individual rights, market capitalism, and democratic governance. Fukuyama suggests that liberal democracy had become the dominant ideology and marked the "end of history" in terms of ideological struggles.

What is the Nature of Politics?

3 approaches to politics

1. normative, priority of justice

2. institutional, development of law and IO

3. interpersonal/intergroup, centrality of struggle for power

Irredentism

Irredentism is a political and territorial concept that involves a state or a group of people seeking to reclaim or recover territory that they consider to be historically or ethnically theirs but is currently part of another sovereign state. This often occurs when there is a perception of a historical injustice or when a specific ethnic or national group identifies with the territory in question.

f.e. Putin’s invasion of Ukraine

Dependent and Independent Variables

Dependent Variable: key outcomes or phenomena that researchers seek to explain, analyze, or understand. F.E. the thaw in US-China relations

Independent Variable: In international relations research, independent variables are the factors or variables that researchers believe may influence or explain changes in the dependent variable(s), which are the outcomes or phenomena of interest. Independent variables are manipulated or observed to understand their impact on the dependent variable(s) and to test hypotheses or theories

Socrates

• founder of western philosophy and among the first moral philosophers of the ethical tradition of thought

• teacher to Plato and Xenophon

• Socratic Dialogue: Utopian city-state Kallipolis

What are some Classical Thinkers?

(5th~4th C BC): Socrates→Plato→Aristotle (teacher of Alexander the Great)

They focused on the establishment of community justice.

What are some Medieval Christian Thinkers?

(Middle Ages or the Dark Ages, 476 A.D. ~1450)

• Thomas Aquinas (Italian philosopher of natural law, 1225-1274)

  • God’s revelation of his standard through nature (eternal law), the scriptures (divine law), and morality (natural law)

• Dante Alighieri (Italian poet, 1265-1321)

They added religious purpose to their focus on the establishment of community justice: faith.

E.H. Carr

• British historian, diplomat, journalist / The Twenty Years' Crisis & What Is History? / realism vs utopianism / “in realism there is no moral dimension” “what is successful is right and what is unsuccessful is wrong”

• warned of the danger in using moral language to clothe national interest

Max Weber

19th century German sociologist, define politics as the authoritative decision-making actions of the state

• Without an agreement on what is social justice, politics is more a mean than an end

• State holds monopoly of legitimacy to use physical force to enforce compliance

David Easton

20th C. American political scientist from Univ. of Chicago, defines politics as process of making authoritative decisions for an entire society (systems theory)

Robert Dahl

• 20th C. American political scientist at Yale

• politics is “human relationships involving control, influence, power, or authority” → politics are not confined to state alone

Hans Morgenthau

• most influential postwar German-American political scientist (Realism)

• Univ. of Chicago/CUNY, Politics Among Nations, 1948 (animus dominandi / goal of state to maximize power)

• All politics, domestic or international, involve a “struggle for power” – means by which other interests are satisfied

• Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace (1948)

  • A realist view of power politics

  • Dominate US foreign policy during the Cold War

  • “Realism maintains that universal moral principles cannot be applied to the actions of states.”

  • State’s moral obligation is to ensure “national survival”

3 methodologies of analyzing world politics

• Traditionalism (WWII~1960s) – emphasize history, law and organizations, and the role of power

  • Interdisciplinary analysis of events, structures, and forces

  • Focus on diplomatic history, int’l economics, institutions and political procedures, philosophy, law, and literature

• Behavioralism (1960s~1970s) – quantitative approach Application of scientific methodology in analyzing world politics

  • Observe behavior – identify recurring patterns to explain and predict behavior

  • Goal to develop hypothesis, test and verify empirically, then make generalizations

  • Theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning, and conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment

  • Belief that our actions are shaped by environmental stimuli

  • Behavioral theory also says that only observable behavior should be studied, as cognition, emotions, and mood are far too subjective

• Post-behavioralism (mid-1970s~) – combination of the two

  • Incorporate key elements from both

  • Return of value from value-neutral ways of behavioralism

Classical Realists

• Thucydides

• Niccolo Machiavelli

• Thomas Hobbes

• Aristotle

20th Century Realists

• Hans Morgenthau

• George F. Kennan

• Reinhold Niebuhr

• E.H. Carr

• Kenneth Waltz

Kenneth Waltz

American political scientist at UC Berkeley and Columbia University, Theory of International Politics, 1979, structural realism or neorealism - the structure of system, anarchy in international politics, can itself account for wars

Reinhold Niebuhr

• (Christian realism) American Reformed theologian / Union Theological Seminary / The Irony of American History / oppose utopianism as ineffectual for dealing with reality / “man's inclination to injustice makes democracy necessary.”

  • opposed the utopianism as ineffectual

  • “man’s inclination to injustice makes democracy necessary” - assumes people are immoral and unjust (this is the straight contrast to idealism)

  • “in realism there is no moral dimension” - “what is successful is right and what is unsuccessful is wrong”

George F. Kennan

• American diplomat and historian / policy of containment / his Long Telegram” in 1946 and 1947 article “The Sources of Soviet Conduct” inspired the Truman Doctrine and the U.S. foreign policy of "containing" the Soviet Union

  • containment policy - put it into pen

  • US was already trying to contain the Soviet Union but they weren’t sure what they were doing and Kennan made sense of it

  • “Sources of Soviet Conduct” - inspired the Truman Doctrine and the containment policy

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

• German philosopher (1770–1831)

• Along with Immanuel Kant (1795 essay “To Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch,” one of the most influential figures in modern Western philosophy

• Conflict between thesis and anti-thesis

• Historical dialectic, clash of opposing ideas

• New idea – synthesis

• Humanity is working toward an end point

• Unfolding of God’s Ideas – struggle between divinely inspired ideas → change in earthly political and social environment

• Marx: materialism replace spiritualism in the dialectic

Immanuel Kant

• Kant established a concept of cosmopolitan law as the nemesis of war. Kant’s paradigm posited that “republican constitutions, a commercial spirit of international trade, and a federation of interdependent republics” would provide the basis for a “perpetual peace” among states.

  • Cooperation motivated by a shared normative commitment to the rule of law, rather than competition driven by self-interest, is the animating force that underlies world affairs

Marxist dialectic

Marx: materialism replace spiritualism inspiring dialectic

In essence, the Marxist dialectic suggests that history and societal development are driven by the conflicts and contradictions between different social classes (e.g., the working class and the bourgeoisie). These conflicts lead to changes in the existing social and economic order, eventually resulting in a new order that, in turn, will face its own contradictions and conflicts.

The dialectical process is seen as ongoing, and it's central to Marxist thought in explaining the evolution of societies, the class struggle, and the potential for revolution to create a more equitable and just system, such as communism. Marxists believe that this process will continue until a classless society is achieved.

Interdependence

• increase in the 1970s

• “complex interdependence” paradigm

  • is a concept introduced by scholars Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye in the field of international relations. It is used to describe a situation where states or actors in the international system are connected through multiple channels and in various issue areas, leading to a complex web of interactions and dependencies. The idea of complex interdependence stands in contrast to the earlier realist paradigm of "simple interdependence," which mainly focused on military and security concerns as the primary drivers of international relations.

• Growing influence of non-state actors

  • Governments no longer the only determinants of IR

  • Diverse influences on decision-making (Graham Allison)

• Priority of functional interdependence

  • No hierarchy in the international system

  • Global economic, telecommunications, and transportation network leave boundaries porous

  • Epistemic societies: societies that prioritizes and values knowledge, truth, and the pursuit of understanding as essential components of its culture and governance. In an epistemic society, the acquisition and dissemination of knowledge are highly valued, and decisions, policies, and social practices are often based on rational inquiry, empirical evidence, and expertise. This contrasts with societies where belief systems, ideology, or tradition may have more influence over decision-making.

  • Importance of the use of force declining

• Declining role of force in world politics

  • Rise of non-security issues – environment, human rights, natural disasters, finance, resources, etc.

Peace Treaty

usually made by the victor and stating ruling for the loser (paying reparations, giving up territories) → Korean War does not have a Peace Treaty because technically it didn’t end

Westphalia Treaty of 1648

• 1648

• concluding the Thirty Years' War in Europe and the Eighty Years’ War (1568 - 1648)

• The Spanish-Dutch treaty was signed on January 30, 1648

• The treaty of October 24, 1648 include the Holy Roman emperor Ferdinand III, the other German princes, France, and Sweden

• England, Poland, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire were the only European powers that were not represented

• The treaties provide the foundation of the modern state system and the concept of territorial sovereignty

• signed in the Westphalian cities of Münster and Osnabrück

• beginning of the nation state system

• World system based on states as main actors

• established religious freedom and the principle of cuius regio, eius religio (the ruler's religion determines the religion of the realm), which granted rulers the right to determine the religion of their territories

• laid the groundwork for the principles of sovereignty and non-interference in the affairs of other states.

• fundamental in modern international relations

Pax Romana

Pax Romana: which translates to "Roman Peace" in Latin, was a period of relative peace and stability that existed in the Roman Empire for approximately two centuries, from 27 BCE to 180 CE. It is often considered one of the most prosperous and peaceful periods in the history of the Roman Empire.

Under [Augustus (27~14 BC) to Marcus Aurelius (161~180 AD)] over Mediterranean, North Africa and Persia

How did international relations evolve since the fall of the Roman Empire?

1. Fall of the Roman Empire (5th Century): With the fall of the Roman Empire, the centralized political authority in Western Europe disintegrated. This led to a fragmented and decentralized system of governance with the rise of various regional powers.

2. Feudalism (9th-15th Century): Feudalism dominated much of Europe during the Middle Ages. Feudal lords exercised authority over their territories with little central oversight. The system was characterized by vassalage, where nobles swore loyalty to more powerful lords or monarchs.

3. Holy Roman Empire: In the heart of Europe, the Holy Roman Empire, a complex political entity that emerged from the ruins of the Carolingian Empire, played a central role in international politics during this period. However, it was more a loose confederation of states than a cohesive empire.

4. Feudal Conflicts and Crusades (11th-13th Century): Feudal lords frequently engaged in conflicts and wars, often over territory, resources, and religious differences. The Crusades were significant military campaigns that involved multiple European powers in attempts to reclaim the Holy Land from Muslim control.

5. Emergence of Nation-States (15th-17th Century): The late Middle Ages and the Renaissance marked the beginning of the transition from feudalism to the emergence of modern nation-states. Powerful monarchies, such as those of England, France, and Spain, sought to centralize authority and assert control over their territories.

6. Treaty of Westphalia (1648): The Peace of Westphalia, ending the Thirty Years' War, is often seen as a pivotal moment. It introduced principles of state sovereignty and non-interference in the affairs of other states. This laid the foundation for the modern system of sovereign nation-states.

7. Colonialism and Imperialism (16th-20th Century): European powers expanded their reach through colonialism and imperialism. They established empires in Africa, Asia, and the Americas, significantly affecting the global balance of power and leading to the eventual breakup of empires after World War II.

8. Age of Revolutions (18th-19th Century): The American and French Revolutions inspired independence movements and the spread of democratic ideas. These changes led to the formation of new nation-states.

9. World Wars and International Organizations (20th Century): The devastation of World War I and World War II prompted the creation of international organizations like the League of Nations and the United Nations to promote diplomacy and prevent further global conflicts.

10. Cold War (1947-1991): The Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union dominated international relations for much of the 20th century. It was characterized by ideological, political, and military rivalry between the two superpowers.

11. Post-Cold War Era: The end of the Cold War ushered in a unipolar world order with the United States as the sole superpower. Globalization and the spread of democracy and human rights became central themes in international relations.

12. Challenges of the 21st Century: International relations in the 21st century have been shaped by issues like terrorism, climate change, regional conflicts, and the rise of new powers like China. Global governance, economic interdependence, and technological advances continue to influence the international landscape.

What was the role of the Pope and the Catholic Church in international relations?

1. Spiritual and Moral Authority: The Pope, as the leader of the Catholic Church, held immense spiritual and moral authority during the Middle Ages and beyond. His moral guidance often extended to secular rulers and states, and he could excommunicate individuals or impose interdicts on regions, carrying significant moral and religious weight.

2. Mediation of Conflicts: Popes often acted as mediators in conflicts between states. They played crucial roles in negotiating peace agreements and reconciling warring parties. Notable examples include Pope Innocent III's mediation in the Fourth Lateran Council and the resolution of conflicts among European monarchs.

3. The Papal States: For much of the Middle Ages, the Pope ruled the Papal States, a significant territorial entity in the Italian Peninsula. The Papal States sometimes engaged in political and military conflicts, making the Pope both a religious and temporal leader. This dual role sometimes led to tension with secular rulers.

4. Crusades: The Pope played a central role in calling for and organizing the Crusades, a series of religiously motivated military campaigns in the Middle Ages. The First Crusade, called by Pope Urban II in 1095, sought to recapture the Holy Land from Muslim control. The Crusades had profound international and intercultural implications.

5. Church-State Relations: The relationship between the Pope and secular rulers was often complex. Popes and kings frequently clashed over issues of authority, taxation, and territorial control. The Investiture Controversy, for instance, revolved around the appointment of bishops and the authority of the Pope versus secular rulers.

6. Diplomatic and Treaty Relations: The Papacy engaged in diplomatic relations with various states and was often involved in the negotiation of treaties, especially during the Renaissance and the early modern era. Papal legates were dispatched as diplomatic envoys.

7. Counter-Reformation: During the Reformation in the 16th century, the Catholic Church, under the leadership of the Pope, sought to counter the spread of Protestantism. The Council of Trent (1545-1563) initiated significant reforms within the Catholic Church.

8. Modern Papal Diplomacy: In the modern era, the Vatican's diplomatic efforts have focused on promoting peace, human rights, and social justice. The Holy See, as an observer at the United Nations, contributes to international discussions on various global issues.

9. Papal Encyclicals: Popes issue encyclicals, authoritative letters, addressing moral and social issues. These encyclicals often influence the views and policies of Catholic-majority countries and sometimes have broader implications on international relations. For example, Pope John Paul II's stance on human rights and Pope Francis's encyclical on climate change, "Laudato si'," have global significance.

Nation VS State

• Nation vs. State: The key distinction between a nation and a state is that a nation is a cultural or social community defined by shared characteristics, while a state is a political entity with defined territory and a government. Not all nations have their own state, and not all states are composed of a single nation. Some states are multinational, meaning they contain multiple nations within their borders.

• Overlap: In some cases, a nation and a state can overlap, and a state may be formed by a single nation with a strong sense of national identity. For example, Japan is both a state and a nation because it is a sovereign country with a predominantly homogeneous population sharing a common culture, language, and history.

• Complexity: The relationship between nations and states can be complex, especially in multicultural and multinational states, where different nations coexist within a single state, often leading to issues related to identity, autonomy, and self-determination.

STATE: a political entity with defined boundaries, a permanent population, a government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other states. In other words, it is a sovereign political organization that exercises authority over a specific territory and population.

NATION: a group of people who share a common cultural, linguistic, historical, or ethnic identity. It is a social and cultural concept based on a sense of shared identity, often characterized by a shared history, language, religion, customs, and sometimes a sense of belonging to a particular territory

Did the Treaty of Westphalia provide the foundation for the modern state system and the concept of territorial sovereignty

Yes, the Treaty of Westphalia, which consisted of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, is often regarded as a pivotal moment in the development of the modern state system and the concept of territorial sovereignty. It marked the end of the Thirty Years' War in Europe, a conflict involving numerous states and religious factions, and it had several significant implications for international relations:

1. Recognition of State Sovereignty:

• The Treaty of Westphalia recognized the sovereignty of individual states within their defined territories. This was a departure from the earlier feudal system and the religious conflicts that had characterized Europe for centuries. States were recognized as the highest authority within their borders, with the power to govern and make decisions without interference from external actors.

2. Principle of Non-Interference:

• The treaty introduced the principle of non-interference in the domestic affairs of sovereign states. It emphasized that other states should not meddle in the internal religious or political matters of a sovereign state.

3. Establishment of Territorial Boundaries:

• The Treaty of Westphalia solidified the idea of clearly defined territorial boundaries for states. This concept of territorial integrity became a fundamental aspect of the modern state system.

4. Pluralism and Recognition of Religions:

• The treaty recognized the coexistence of different religions within states, particularly in the Holy Roman Empire, which had been torn apart by religious conflict. It allowed individual states to choose their official religion, which contributed to the idea of religious pluralism and tolerance within states.

5. Balance of Power:

• The treaty contributed to the development of the balance of power principle in international relations. It aimed to prevent any single state or group of states from dominating Europe, thus promoting stability.

What was the paradigm shift that happened after the fall of Rome?

1. Two Levels of Authority: In the post-Rome world order, the international system underwent a transformation, resulting in the emergence of two distinct levels of authority.

2. Macro-Level Authority: At the macro-level, the authority was concentrated around the Catholic Church, with the Pope at its center. The Church and the clergy became central figures of power. Monarchs and kings were subordinate to the Pope, exemplified by the crowning of Charlemagne as "Emperor of the Romans" by Pope Leo III in 800 AD.

3. Multi-Ethnic Empires: The post-Rome world order featured various multi-ethnic empires, including the British, Austro-Hungarian, Chinese, Dutch, French, German, Ottoman, Russian, Spanish, and others. While these empires encompassed diverse ethnic and cultural groups, they often exhibited weak political identity.

4. Micro-Level Authority: On the micro-level, the landscape was characterized by small political units such as principalities, dukedoms, baronies, and other fiefdoms. These smaller entities retained a degree of autonomy despite their vassal status to larger empires.

5. Emergence of City-States: During the medieval period, city-states like Florence and Venice began to emerge. These city-states played a crucial role in the development of the nation-state system. Over time, the concept of the nation-state, characterized by shared culture, heritage, and history, gained prominence.

Italian City states as the Precursor of Nation States

• End of the Middle Ages, Italy different from other part of Europe

  • Retained much of its ancient Roman heritage – urban centers with several heavily-populated cities

• These cities try to declare their independence either from the Church or the Holy Roman Emperor

• Power struggle between the popes of the Church and the emperor

• City-States choose political loyalty: e.g. Milan = Emperor / Florence = Pope

• Emperor or Pope never had total control of Italy, giving opportunities for independence movement to grow

• Increased trade boost C-S status as major hubs of trade and commerce

  • Pisa, Genoa, and Venice become important trade hub with the Mediterranean

  • Venice most successful

  • Florence important in banking and wool trade (Medici family considered godfather of renaissance supporting artists and scientists such as Michelangelo, Raphael, Donatello, Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo Galilei, etc.)

  • 5 main city-states consolidated: Milan, Florence, Venice, Naples, and the Papal State

• This rise in C-S coincide the decline of feudalism in Europe

  • 14th C. Black Death also disrupt the feudal system

  • The epidemic killed 30-50% of the entire population of Europe (75-200 million people died)

Thirty Years War

• Thirty Years’ War (1618–48) was a religious conflict fought primarily in central Europe

• Religious Conflict: The war started as a religious conflict, with Catholic and Protestant states fighting over religious and political issues.
  Started as a battle among the Catholic and Protestant states that formed the Holy Roman Empire

• Holy Roman Empire: Most of the fighting occurred within the Holy Roman Empire, a patchwork of German states and territories.

• Evolution: As the war dragged on, it became less about religion and more about who would govern Europe. Major powers like France and Sweden got involved.
  But evolved to become more about which group would ultimately govern Europe

• Devastation: The war was extremely destructive, with millions of casualties, including soldiers and civilians.
  Brutal war with more than 8 million casualties

• Treaty of Westphalia: The war ended in 1648 with the Treaty of Westphalia, which recognized the independence of many German states and marked the beginning of modern international diplomacy.

Thirty Years War (run up, phases, consequences)

Run-Up to the War

• In 1619, Emperor Ferdinand II of the Holy Roman Empire, from the House of Habsburg, tried to make everyone in the empire follow Roman Catholicism. This went against the religious freedom granted in 1555.

• The Peace of Augsburg in 1555 allowed German states to choose between Lutheranism, Calvinism, or Catholicism, following the principle "whose realm, his religion."

• The Bohemian nobility, in present-day Austria and the Czech Republic, rejected Ferdinand II and famously threw his representatives out of a window at Prague Castle in 1618, known as the 'Defenestration of Prague,' which triggered the Thirty Years War.

Phases of the War

• Phase I - Bohemian Phase (1618-1625): The war began with the Bohemian Revolt. Bohemian nobility allied with Protestant states in Germany, while Ferdinand II sought help from his Catholic nephew, King Phillip IV of Spain.

• Phase II - Danish Phase (1625-1629): Denmark's King Christian IV supported the Protestants but was defeated by Catholic forces. The Edict of Restitution resulted in territorial losses for Protestants.

• Phase III - Swedish Phase (1630-1635): Sweden, led by Gustavus Adolphus, joined the fight, regaining lost territory. Gustavus Adolphus was killed in 1632.

• Phase IV - French Phase (1635-1648): France, led by Cardinal Richelieu, entered to weaken the Habsburgs. The war expanded into Western Europe, involving Spain and the Netherlands.

Consequences of the War

• The war changed Europe geopolitically and the role of religion and nation-states.

• It led to the birth of modern nation-states and the world political system based on sovereign states as the primary political actors.

• The Peace of Westphalia (1648) ended the war and introduced critical principles, including religious freedom for Catholics, Lutherans, and Reformed Protestants. It also recognized the sovereignty of individual states within the Holy Roman Empire and marked the beginning of the modern state system in Europe.

Eighty Years’ War (1568-1648)

• Eighty Years’ War was a war of Netherlands independence from Spain

• Lead to the separation of northern and southern Netherlands and to the formation of the Dutch Republic

• Spain’s concurrent wars with England and France weaken Spain’s war against the Dutch

• Fighting formed a part of the general Thirty Years’ War

• The Franco-Dutch alliance of 1635 led to significant French conquests

• The Dutch Republic and Spain, in part fearful of the growing power of France, conclude a separate peace in 1648 by which Spain finally recognized Dutch independence

• Cause: The war was primarily a struggle for independence by the Seventeen Provinces in the Low Countries (nowadays Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands) against the rule of the Spanish Habsburg Empire. The provinces were ruled by King Philip II of Spain, a Catholic, and sought to break free from his control.

• Religious and Political Factors: The conflict had both religious and political dimensions. The Northern Provinces, which later became the Dutch Republic, were largely Protestant and sought religious freedom. They also wanted more political autonomy from the Catholic Habsburg monarchy.

• Leaders: William of Orange, also known as William the Silent, played a significant role in leading the Dutch resistance against Spanish rule. He became a symbol of the Dutch struggle for independence.

Post-Westphalia Growth of Monarchs

• states are represented by these monarchs → this starts getting to the head of the kings

• kind of like the “heaven’s mandate” - the rights to rule over this land and these people

• Next several centuries following Westphalia marked by expansion of monarchs

  • Louis XIV of France (1643-1715)

  • Frederick II of Prussia (1740-1786)

  • Peter the Great of Russia (1682-1725)

• State an embodiment of nation (people)?

• Kings claim “divine right”

• Louis XIV: “L’état, c’est moi” → French Revolution (1789-1799)

Rise of Nation States (

• American (1776) and French (1789) revolutions signal a paradigm shift in the concept of governance

• Democracies established on principle that political power rests with the people, not the monarch

• This view expand to an increase in nationalism – mass identification with and participation in the affairs of the state → Patriotic draft during Napoleonic France

• Idea of popular sovereignty and self-determination grow

• French Revolution (1789-1799)→ French Revolutionary Wars (1792-1802) → Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815): French Empire and allies vs Allies (UK, Austrian, Prussia, Spain, Dutch Republic, Russia, Ottoman Empire, Sweden, some German and Italian states, etc.

• The Congress of Vienna 1815 1st of a series of international meetings known as the Concert of Europe – an attempt to forge a peaceful balance of power in Europe - model for League of Nations and the UN

• Nations coalesce into states – Germany (1871) and Italy (1861)

• Empires fall (Ottoman Empire, Austro-Hungarian, British, Japanese, etc.) → new states

• Coincided by decolonization → more nation states

  • Decolonization led to more Nation States → all these states were under European Colonization and thus they became new states after decolonizing

Concert of Europe

a diplomatic system and a series of international meetings that took place in the early 19th century after the Napoleonic Wars. It aimed to establish a new balance of power in Europe and maintain stability after the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte. Key aspects of the Concert of Europe include.

1. Participants: Representatives from major European powers, including Austria, Russia, Prussia, the United Kingdom, and France, attended these diplomatic gatherings.

2. Goals: The primary goal was to restore stability to Europe after the tumultuous years of the Napoleonic Wars and the French Revolution. The major European powers sought to prevent any one nation from dominating the continent and to establish a system that would maintain peace and territorial integrity.

How did WWI start and what is the significance?

• Archiduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of the empire of Austria-Hungary, went on a goodwill tour with wife, Sophia, to the town of Sarajevo in Bosnia (Yugoslavia) on June 28, 1914

• Bosnian Serb nationalist Gavrilo Princip, member of Young Bosnia, killed them both on June 28, 1914 – Reason? To end Austro-Hungarian rule over Bosnia and Herzegovina (annexed in 1908)

• Austria-Hungary include Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and large parts of Poland, Romania, and Yugoslavia

• Serbia oppose A-H rule over Bosnia and Herzegovina

• A-H want to use the occasion to settle Serbian nationalism

• Chain reaction: A-H declare war on Serbia with German blessing (Kaiser Wilhelm secretly pledged his support to A-H / so-called “carte blanche”) → Russia pledge support for Serbia → France back Russia → Germany declare war on Russia and invade Belgium and France → Great Britain back France

The significance of it:

1. Treaty of Versailles: The war ended with the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, which imposed harsh penalties on Germany. It is often seen as one of the causes of World War II due to the economic hardships and humiliation it caused in Germany.

2. End of Empires: The war led to the collapse of several empires, including the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, Russian, and German empires. New nations emerged from the remnants of these empires.

3. League of Nations: The League of Nations was established as a precursor to the United Nations. It aimed to promote international cooperation and prevent future conflicts, although it was not fully successful in achieving these goals.

4. Political and Social Changes: The war had profound political and social effects. It contributed to changes in government, the role of women, and the development of new political ideologies, including communism and fascism.

5. Global Consequences: The war reshaped the world order and influenced events in the 20th century, including the Russian Revolution, the rise of totalitarian regimes, and the outbreak of World War II.

WWI SUMMARY

• Allies (Triple Entente: France, Russia, Britain) vs. Central Powers (Triple Alliance: Germany, A-H, and Italy {1st neutral then change side to fight A-H})

• Later, Italy, Japan, Romania, and U.S. join Allies and Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria join Central Powers

• Germany marched into neutral Belgium to attack France

• Invasion of Belgium led Britain to join France and Russia, Italy joined later (1915)

• 4-year war costing $337 billion and 40 million casualties (over 16 million dead)

• Cost 120,000 American lives (overall 9 million soldiers and 7 million civilians dead)

• Causes: arms race, ethnic tension (In A-H 10 different ethnic peoples with difference language, culture, and religion), fear of Germany (united in 1871), competition for colonies, etc.

Triple Entente

The Triple Entente was formed primarily as a response to the formation of the Triple Alliance. Its main members were:

• France

• Russia

• The United Kingdom

Triple Alliance

The Triple Alliance, also known as the Central Powers, consisted of the following major European powers:

• Germany

• Austria-Hungary (also known as the Austro-Hungarian Empire)

• Italy

ARCHDUKE FRANZ FERDINAND

• Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary was assassinated on June 28, 1914, in Sarajevo, Bosnia, which was then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

• Franz Ferdinand was the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. His assassination took place against a backdrop of growing tensions in Europe, with rivalries and alliances among major powers, including Germany, Russia, France, and the United Kingdom.

• The assassins were members of a Serbian nationalist organization called the Black Hand. They were motivated by a desire to advance the cause of Serbian nationalism and to undermine the rule of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in the Balkans, where there were significant Slavic populations.

• They believed that killing Franz Ferdinand, who was seen as a symbol of Habsburg oppression, would weaken the empire and potentially lead to the liberation of Serbs and the creation of a greater Serbian state.

• On June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie, were in Sarajevo on an official visit. As they traveled in a motorcade, they were targeted by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb member of the Black Hand.

• Princip shot and killed both Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie, during the motorcade procession.

• The assassination of Franz Ferdinand set off a diplomatic crisis between Austria-Hungary and Serbia. Austria-Hungary, believing that Serbia was complicit in the assassination, issued an ultimatum to Serbia.

• The situation escalated as alliances came into play. Russia, a Slavic ally of Serbia, began mobilizing its forces in response to Austria-Hungary's actions.

• Within weeks, a complex web of alliances led to the outbreak of World War I, as Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on Serbia triggered a series of declarations and military actions among the major European powers.

Reasons for US neutrality during WWI

1. Public Opinion: The majority of Americans wanted to stay out of the war. They saw the conflict in Europe as a distant affair and preferred to avoid involvement in what they considered a European matter.

2. Economic Interests: The United States had strong economic ties with both the Allies (including the United Kingdom and France) and the Central Powers (including Germany). American businesses were selling goods to both sides, and U.S. banks had financial interests in Europe. This economic interconnectedness made it challenging to take sides.

3. Historical Tradition: The United States had a long-standing tradition of avoiding "entangling alliances" and maintaining a policy of non-intervention in European conflicts, which dated back to George Washington's farewell address.

4. Woodrow Wilson's Stance: President Woodrow Wilson, who was in office at the time, advocated for a policy of neutrality and peace. He sought to mediate and negotiate a peaceful resolution to the conflict.

The sinking of Lusitania

• On May 7, 1915 a German submarine (U-boat) sank a British ocean liner, the Lusitania, off the coast of Ireland, killing 1,200 people including 128 Americans

• Wilson demand an end to German attacks on passenger ships and warn that US would not tolerate unrestricted submarine warfare

• But in Nov. 1916 Wilson reelected on slogan – “He kept us out of war”

• Wilson walk fine line between neutrality vs war

• Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan resign to pressure Wilson to maintain commitment to neutrality

• Hawks such as former President Theodore Roosevelt (lost to Wilson in 1912 presidential election) denounce German acts as "piracy“ and pressured Wilson to declare war on Germany for Lusitania

• Roosevelt wanted to re-constitute ‘Rough Riders,’ all-volunteer fighters he had led in the Spanish-American War

• After news of Zimmermann Telegram, Roosevelt call Wilson, “the lily-livered skunk in the White House”

Zimmermann Telegram

The Zimmerman Telegram was a significant diplomatic communication sent during World War I that played a crucial role in shaping the course of the war and had profound implications for international relations. Here are the key details of the Zimmerman Telegram:

Sender and Recipient:

• The Zimmerman Telegram was sent by Arthur Zimmermann, the German Foreign Minister, in January 1917, during World War I.

• It was intended to be sent to the German ambassador in Mexico but was intercepted by British intelligence.

Publication:

• The British government shared the contents of the intercepted telegram with the United States in late February 1917.

• The publication of the Zimmerman Telegram created a significant diplomatic crisis and had a profound impact on public opinion in the United States.

Impact:

• The revelation of the Zimmerman Telegram played a pivotal role in the decision by the United States to enter World War I. The telegram was seen as evidence of Germany's hostile intentions toward the United States.

• On April 2, 1917, President Woodrow Wilson asked Congress to declare war on Germany, marking the United States' entry into World War I on the side of the Allies.

a command economy

a planned economy or centrally planned economy, is an economic system in which the government or a central authority has significant control over the production, distribution, and allocation of goods and services within a country.

In a command economy, key economic decisions, such as what to produce, how much to produce, and at what prices, are determined by government planners rather than by market forces of supply and demand.

Woodrow Wilson

28th President of the United States

1. Leadership During World War I: Woodrow Wilson led the United States through World War I. Although he initially pursued a policy of neutrality, he eventually asked Congress to declare war on Germany in 1917. His leadership during the war helped shape the post-war world order and the eventual peace settlement.

2. Fourteen Points: Wilson's "Fourteen Points" speech, delivered to Congress in January 1918, outlined his vision for a just and lasting peace after World War I. These principles included self-determination for nations, open diplomacy, and the establishment of a League of Nations. His ideas had a significant impact on the Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations.

3. League of Nations: Wilson was a strong advocate for the establishment of the League of Nations, which he saw as a way to prevent future conflicts through diplomacy and collective security. He played a key role in the inclusion of the League's covenant in the Treaty of Versailles. Although the United States ultimately did not join the League, Wilson's vision laid the groundwork for later international organizations like the United Nations.

4. Progressive Reforms: As a Progressive Era president, Wilson pursued a series of domestic reforms, known as the "New Freedom." These reforms included the establishment of the Federal Reserve System, the Federal Trade Commission, and the Clayton Antitrust Act. These measures aimed to regulate big business and promote fair competition.

5. Women's Suffrage: Wilson supported and signed the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, granting women the right to vote. This was a significant step toward gender equality and expanded democratic participation in the United States.

6. Federal Income Tax: Under Wilson's presidency, the 16th Amendment was ratified, allowing for the collection of federal income tax. This new revenue source helped fund government programs and initiatives.

7. Presidential Legacy: Woodrow Wilson is often ranked as one of the most influential and impactful U.S. presidents, particularly in terms of his foreign policy contributions. His leadership during World War I, his role in shaping the post-war settlement, and his advocacy for international cooperation left a lasting legacy on U.S. foreign relations.

8. Nobel Peace Prize: In 1919, Woodrow Wilson was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to end World War I and his role in the creation of the League of Nations. He was the second U.S. president to receive this honor (after Theodore Roosevelt).

9. Educator and Intellectual: Before entering politics, Wilson was a respected scholar and educator, serving as the president of Princeton University. His intellectual background and passion for ideas were reflected in his political philosophy and speeches.

Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points

• In January 1918 Wilson issues ‘14 Points’ outlining the principles of world order for a just and lasting peace after World War I.

• “peace without victory” (no unjust aggrandizement, no secret diplomacy; reduction of arms for both victors and losers; return of Poland; free trade; freedom of sea; creation of League of Nations; Restoring Belgium…)

• Self-determination also emphasized

• Wilson brings no Republican to Versailles

• At peace conference, “peace w/o victory” hopes dashed quickly

Self-determination

a key principle in international relations and political philosophy. It refers to the right of a people or a nation to freely determine their own political status, form of government, and pursue their economic, social, and cultural development without interference

→ endless minority problems (3 million Germans in the new nation Czechoslovakia – Hitler later justifies his taking of the Sudeten region based on the principles of self-determination)

→ 1919 march 1st movement: followed in reaction to the 1818 Treaty of Versailles and the mention of self-determination

Why did the League of Nations fail?

• Major Powers Absent: The League lacked major powers like the U.S., the Soviet Union, and Germany.

• Ineffective Conflict Resolution: It couldn't prevent conflicts like Italy's invasion of Ethiopia.

• Economic Hardships: Operated during the Great Depression, limiting resources.

• Complex Decision-Making: Slow decisions and unanimous agreement were required.

• Failure to Prevent WWII: Failed to stop the rise of Nazi Germany and World War II.

• National Interests First: Member nations prioritized their own interests over cooperation.

• Limited Military Capacity: Depended on member states for military force.

• Lack of Popular Support: Many countries didn't strongly support the League.

• Disputes Among Major Powers: Couldn't mediate disputes among powerful nations.

• World War II and Dissolution: The outbreak of WWII led to its official dissolution in 1946.

Senator Henry Cabot Lodge

• Senator from Massachusetts: Lodge served as a U.S. Senator from Massachusetts for over three decades, from 1893 to 1924.

• Republican Party: He was a member of the Republican Party and played a significant role in shaping its policies.

• Foreign Policy Expert: Lodge was known for his expertise in foreign affairs and played a key role in influencing U.S. foreign policy during his time in the Senate.

• Opposed the League of Nations: One of his most notable actions was his opposition to the Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations, a proposed international organization aimed at maintaining world peace. He was concerned that the League could infringe on U.S. sovereignty and sought to prevent the U.S. from joining it.

• Lodge Reservations: Lodge proposed a series of reservations (changes and conditions) to the Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations, which were intended to protect American interests and sovereignty. These reservations became a major point of contention during the treaty's ratification process.

• Ratification Controversy: The disagreement between Lodge and President Woodrow Wilson over the treaty and Lodge's reservations contributed to the U.S. Senate's rejection of the Treaty of Versailles and the country's decision not to join the League of Nations.

• Historical Significance: Lodge's role in the Treaty of Versailles and League of Nations controversy remains a significant chapter in U.S. history, highlighting debates over international cooperation and sovereignty.

Article 10 of the Covenant of the League of Nation

• League of Nations: International organization formed after WWI to promote peace and cooperation.

• Article 10: Stated that member states would defend the independence and territorial integrity of other members.

• Collective Security: If a member was attacked, other members would collectively respond.

• Significance: An important but controversial element of the League's charter.

• Impact: Led to complex debates and challenges in practice, especially in addressing acts of aggression.

• Article 10: Article 10 of the Covenant of the League of Nations stated that member countries of the League would work together to protect the territorial integrity and political independence of all member nations.

• Collective Security: It introduced the concept of collective security, meaning that if any League member was threatened or became the victim of aggression, other member nations would come to its aid.

• Promise of Peace: The goal of Article 10 was to promote peace by creating a system where countries would cooperate to prevent conflicts from escalating and threatening the peace and stability of the world.

• League's Role: This article emphasized the League's role as a peacekeeping and security organization, with the hope of preventing future world wars like World War I.

• Controversy: While Article 10 had noble intentions, it also faced opposition in the United States, particularly from Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, who was concerned that it could compromise U.S. sovereignty and ability to make independent decisions about going to war.

• Legacy: Ultimately, the debate over Article 10 and the broader Treaty of Versailles contributed to the U.S. Senate's rejection of the treaty and the United States' decision not to join the League of Nations. → US never officially joined the League to keep US out of European affairs – “isolationism”

New Deal

The New Deal was a series of policies and programs implemented by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) during the 1930s to address the economic and social challenges of the Great Depression. They were programs designed to produce relief, recovery, and reform to ease unemployed and farmers while seeking economic recovery

• Significance: The New Deal is significant for several reasons:

  • It provided immediate relief to millions of Americans suffering from unemployment and poverty.

  • Also instituted major regulatory reforms in finance, communications, and labor

  • It played a crucial role in stabilizing the U.S. financial system.

  • It marked a shift in the government's role in the economy, with increased regulation and intervention.

  • It helped shape modern social welfare policies, including Social Security.

Good Neighbor Policy

• Key Point: U.S. foreign policy during the 1930s towards Latin American nations.

• Details: A shift from interventionism to cooperation with Latin American countries.

• President: Introduced by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the 1930s.

• Objective: Emphasized non-intervention and mutually beneficial relations with Latin American nations.

• Significance: It aimed to improve diplomatic and economic ties, replacing earlier interventionist policies.

• Impact: The policy contributed to better relations and cooperation with Latin American countries.

• Enduring Legacy: The Good Neighbor Policy laid the groundwork for stronger U.S.-Latin American relations in the future.

Versailles Treaty

Versailles Treaty (June 1919)

• Purpose: Ended World War I.

• Key Points:

  1. Territorial Losses: Germany lost land.

  2. Disarmament: Germany was prohibited from having an air force, tanks, submarines, and a large standing army.

  3. War Guilt Clause: Put full blame on Germany

  4. Reparations: Germany had to pay to the Allied powers to compensate for the damage caused during the war.

  5. League of Nations: Created to prevent future wars.

• Significance: The Versailles Treaty's shortcomings, including its inability to maintain lasting peace and its harsh treatment of Germany, contributed to the economic hardships and political tensions in the interwar years, ultimately setting the stage for World War II.

INTERWAR PERIOD

• 1919, Treaty of Versailles ends WWI

• Germany forced to give up large amount of money and territory

• German economy collapses and Germans become angry and frustrated, blaming the unfair Versailles treaty

• Extreme answers to social problems. Many join National Socialist Party (Nazi) led by Adolf Hitler

• Hitler appeals to nationalism, breeding hatred especially toward the Jews Hitler wants to kill all Jews (During WWII, he kills over 6 million Jews - Holocaust)

• Europe exhausted and distrustful

• Versailles + League of Nations → Permanent Peace?

• Economic depression

• Isolation and appeasement mood

• Slow response to aggression

US IN INTERWAR PERIOD

• Harding's Vision: "Return to normalcy" with nativism, isolationism, and limited government intervention.

• 1920s: A decade of optimism, lifestyle changes, innovation, and women's rights.

• 1929 Stock Market Crash: Caused economic devastation in the US.

• Great Depression: Spread globally, with 14 million Americans unemployed, industrial production down to 1/3, and a 50% drop in national income by 1933.

• FDR's New Deal: Introduced to provide relief, recovery, and reform, targeting unemployment and farmers.

• Regulatory Reforms: Enacted in finance, communications, and labor sectors.

• Good Neighbor Policy: Focused on maintaining friendly relations with Latin America through isolationism.

• US-Japan Tensions: Japan's territorial expansion led to US sanctions on trade, increasing tensions.

Sept. 29, 1938 summit meeting

• a summit meeting took place between Chamberlain, Daladier, Hitler, and Mussolini

• Hitler demanded Sudetenland (land that belonged to Czechoslovakia) and promised that if he got Sudetenland that there would be no war. He also promised that he would ask for nothing more.

• Britain and France agreed to let Hitler take Sudetenland

• British and French were happy that war was prevented, but Czechs were angry

• Czechs felt betrayed by Britain and France and warned that appeasement policy was wrong and that Hitler would demand more later

• They were right as Hitler moved in to take all of Czechoslovakia

Neville Chamberlain's Appeasement

• Chamberlain's Strategy: Chamberlain adopted a policy of appeasement in the 1930s.

• Objective: His aim was to prevent another devastating world war like WWI.

• Concessions: Chamberlain made diplomatic concessions to Hitler's demands, notably over Czechoslovakia.

• Critics and Outcomes: Critics argued that appeasement emboldened Hitler and contributed to the outbreak of WWII.

• Legacy: Chamberlain's approach remains a subject of historical debate.

Munich Conference 1938

• Key Point: Key event in the lead-up to World War II.

• Details: Diplomatic meeting involving major European powers.

• Participants: The conference took place in Munich, Germany, and involved the leaders of Germany, Britain, France, and Italy.

• Context: It occurred against the backdrop of Nazi Germany's territorial claims on Czechoslovakia.

• Outcome: The conference led to the Munich Agreement, in which Britain and France appeased Hitler by allowing the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia in exchange for a promise of peace.

• Critics: Critics argue that the Munich Agreement ultimately failed to prevent WWII and instead emboldened Nazi expansion.

• Legacy: The Munich Conference is often cited as an example of the dangers of appeasement in international diplomacy.

How did WWII begin?

• WWII a direct result of WWI: unresolved conflicts, tension, anger from great depression

  • Public attitude shift favorably towards dictators with extreme solutions – fascism, racism, irredentism

  • League prove to be ineffective and Treaty of Versailles agreements violated repeatedly (German conscription, rearmament, expansion, etc.)

  • Anschluss, the annexation of Austria into Germany on March 12, 1938, precursor for Hitler’s ambitions

  • Sudetenland, Munich Agreement, etc.

  • On Sept. 1, 1939 Germany attacks Poland in a blitzkrieg attack using bomber planes and Panzer tanks - blitzkrieg = “lightening war”

  • France and Britain declared war on Germany on Sept. 3, but Poland surrender on Sept. 27

  • In June 1940 Germany defeats France

  • If Britain loses, US has no friends in Europe so US sends 50 destroyers to help the British fleet. In return, US gets to use the British naval bases in the Caribbean and part of North America

  • To prepare for war, a new law was passed in 1940 to draft soldiers

  • On Dec. 7, 1941 Japan attacks Pearl Harbor: day of Infamy

Lend Lease Act

• March 1941

• "An Act to Promote the Defense of the United States,”

• Lending Military Equipment, Aid to Allies, Support for Resistance Movements

• Authorization for US Armed Forces whilst also Preservation of Neutrality - not officially entering the war

• US Isolationism kept them from being involved in the European Politics, but they did help the Allies

Dec. 7, 1941

• day of infamy

• Japan attacks Pearl Harbor

August 15 1948

The Republic of Korea is Established

“old soldiers never die, they just fade away,”

General Douglas MacArthur. He delivered this line in his farewell address to the U.S. Congress on April 19, 1951, after he was relieved from his command during the Korean War. The full quote goes: "I now close my military career and just fade away—an old soldier who tried to do his duty as God gave him the light to see that duty."

MacArthur's farewell speech is well-remembered and has become famous in military and political history.

Aug. 15, 1945

Japanese Emperor Hirohito surrenders

International Criminal Court (ICC)

a permanent international tribunal established to prosecute individuals for the most serious international crimes, including genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression.

International Court of Justice (ICJ)

also known as the World Court, is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations (UN). It is a permanent international court established to settle legal disputes between states and to provide advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by UN organs and specialized agencies.

Hinomaru

the name for Japan's national flag, which features a red circle on a white background. The term "Hinomaru" can be translated as "circle of the sun" or "sun disc" in Japanese. It's a simple and distinctive design that is widely recognized as a symbol of Japan. The red circle is meant to represent the sun, and it holds cultural and historical significance in Japanese society.

embargo

a ban on trade of commercial activities

D-DAY

• D-Day refers to the invasion of Western Europe by the Allies on June 6, 1944

• To drive Germans out, a major Allied invasion planned

• First invasion in Normandy, France

• 4,000 ships and 175,000 soldiers involved

• The weather was so bad that Germans thought the invasion would not take place

• When Normandy was hit, Germans thought it was a fake, so Germans were not so well prepared

Battle of Midway

• June 1942 when Japanese Navy was defeated in a Battle of Midway (Midway is a tiny island in the Pacific)

• U.S. strategy to close in on Japanese mainland by taking over all individual islands so they can keep their bombers on these islands and get closer to Japan!

‘Enola Gay’ / “Little Boy”

The "Enola Gay" was a Boeing B-29 Superfortress bomber aircraft that was used by the United States during World War II. The name "Enola Gay" was given to this specific aircraft, and it is most famous for its role in dropping the atomic bomb named "Little Boy" on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945.

What alternative choices did the US have for dropping the A-bomb on Hiroshima?

1) peace talks;

2) blockade;

3) conventional bombing;

4) Russia’s involvement;

5) Warning of the A-bomb;

6) bomb demonstration;

7) invasion

Sphere of influence

A region influenced by one great power. In a sphere of influence, the dominant power does not have sovereignty but imposes its will over several neighboring states, restricting the maneuverability of local territorial leaders.

Yalta Conference

Date: February 1945

Leaders: United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union

Promise Made: Commitment to hold free elections in liberated Eastern Europe.

Reality: The promise was not fully realized.

Outcome: Eastern Europe fell under Soviet influence with communist governments.

Impact: Heightened tensions of the Cold War, reflecting differing values of the superpowers. FDR naïve to think that his goodwill gestures could win over Stalin. He was not dealing with domestic political opponents but with a country that envisaged a different world.

WHO SAID: “The United States… find [itself] directly opposed by a regime with contrary aims and a totally different concept of life... That regime adheres to a false philosophy which purport to offer freedom, security, and greater opportunity to mankind... That false philosophy is communism.”

Harry S. Truman

WHO SAID: “Cold War is a struggle for supremacy between two conflicting ideologies: Freedom under God versus ruthless, godless tyranny”

JFK

WHO SAID: “If we don’t stop the Reds in South Vietnam, tomorrow they will be in Hawaii, and next they will be in San Francisco.”

Lyndon Johnson

WHO SAID: “How do you tell a communist? Well, it’s someone who reads Marx and Lenin. And how do you tell an anti-Communist? It’s someone who understands Marx and Lenin.”

Ronald Reagan

WHO SAID: “Communism died this year… But the biggest thing that has happened in the world in my life, in our lives, is this: By the grace of God, America won the Cold War.”

George H.W. Bush

WHO SAID: “An ‘Iron Curtain’ is descending over Europe,”

• Winston Churchill, former prime minister of the UK

• Iron Curtain Speech in Fulton, Missouri 1946

Iron Curtain

refers to a metaphorical, ideological, and political boundary that separated the Western democracies, led by the United States and its allies, from the Eastern Bloc, led by the Soviet Union and its satellite states, during the Cold War.

This concept became widely associated with the division of Europe into two ideological and geopolitical spheres following World War II.

Truman Doctrine

1947

With the Truman Doctrine, President Harry S. Truman established that the United States would provide political, military and economic assistance to all democratic nations under threat from external or internal authoritarian forces.

NATO

• North Atlantic Treaty Organization

• established on April 4, 1949 to put up a united front against Soviet aggression

• Founding Members: The original founding members of NATO included the United States, Canada, and ten Western European countries: Belgium, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, and the United Kingdom.

• The treaty's Article 5 states that an attack on one member is considered an attack on all members, and all members are obligated to respond to the aggression.

• NATO's primary purpose was to provide mutual defense and deter potential Soviet aggression in Europe.