Hgeo 250

Why are ocean fisheries important?

One in five people on the planet rely on fish as a primary source of protein in their diet - many who are in low income countries. More that 20 million people earn their livelihood through fishing and aquaculture. This employment is concentrated in specific areas where fishing or aquaculture may be the dominant industry. A large number of people exist in the informal fishing industry in coastal communities in low income countries.

How does overfishing affect the ocean?

Overfishing affects the entire ocean ecosystem. It changes the size and type of fish, it changes geographic distributions of fish, and it affects the entire food web - often in ways we currently do not fully understand.

What are the global trends in the state of the world's marine fish stocks?

Fish are being fished at an unsustainable rate.

Perpetual Resources

Reseorces that replenish constantly and aren't impacted by human activity.

Renewable Resources

Resources that restore/replenish themselves on a timescale that is meaningful to human society (part of an active ecological system).

Non-renewable Resources

Resources that exist in a fixed quantity or stock in the earths crust. Any renewal rate is too slow to be meaningful to human activity.

Sources

a place, person, or thing from which something comes or can be obtained. We are using Resources as Sources when we take them from the environment and make use of them in consumption or production.

Sinks

Habitats that serve to trap or otherwise remove chemicals such as plant nutrients, organic pollutants, or metal ions through natural processes. We are using Resources as Sinks when we use them to store or process (attenuate) waste products.

Renewable Resources Degradation

occurs when the capacity of the renewable resource to act as a source or sink is reduced OR when the ecological functioning of the resource is degraded.

Sustainable Yield

the highest rate at which a renewable resource can be used indefinitely as a source without degrading it.

Critical Load

the highest rate at which a renewable resource can be used indefinitely as a sink without degrading it.

Newfoundland Cod Fishery Case - 1497

"the codfish run so thick you can catch them by hanging wicker baskets over a ship's side." John Cabot - 1497

Introduction of Factory Trawlers

Introduction of Factory Trawlers • Nets up to 5kms long • Process and offload while at sea • Work for Months at a time.

Newfoundland Cod Fishery Case - 1977

- Prior to 1977 Canada enacted no efforts to restrict or control fishing beyond a 12 nautical mile limit.

- Large European, Canadian, and American fishing trawlers were fishing without restriction.

- In 1977, Canada declared an EEZ set at a 200 nautical mile limit which gave them control over much of the area.

- In theory, this new control should have helped prevent overfishing.

Newfoundland Cod Fishery Case - 1992 and 1998

- 19,000 fishers & plant workers directly impacted

- 20,000 additional workers impacted indirectly

- Many communities and households were devastated

Why did the Newfoundland Cod Fishery Case have a tragic outcome?

Transboundary Situation created challenges as Canadian government did not control the entire resource w/part of the resource effectively being in an open access common property situation.

Government subsidies pushed the exploitation of the resource beyond what markets would have if left alone (perverse subsidies*).

Scientists who put forward predictions of concern were ignored while optimistic scientists who predicted positive futures were embraced by policymakers who were prioritizing economic growth - the Precautionary Principle was ignored.

Scientific monitoring was not in place and there was no system of adaptation to address changes in the condition of the fish stocks (Adaptive Management).

Precautionary Principle: UN Definition

In order to protect the environment, when there is a reasonable probability of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty regarding the extent or possibility of risk should not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.

Adaptive Management Principle

the use of a structured, rigorous, and iterative process of decision making regarding an issue that involves regular monitoring of current outcomes that can affect the application of regulations and other policy instruments to achieve a desired goal.

Case: Pacific Halibut Fisheries

1920's Problem: Increased fishing effort required (Fishery degradation)

Use a Regulatory Approach and an International Agreement to establish a shortened season so that there is a 'Recovery Period'

In response, Fishermen bought more boats (often of lesser quality) and hired temporary workers during season, by 1994 the season was down to two days.

Independent Fishing Quotas

- Starting in 1991 Independent Fishing Quota's introduced (tradable permits*): Total quota is set each year and permits distributed by existing formula, Permits are tradable between Fishing companies, Permits can be sold permanently.

- Fishing season is now 8 months, there is a full industry again.

- Has addressed many of the problems in the region.

3 pillars of sustainability

social, environmental, economic

Key Principle of Sustainable Development

Integration of Social, Economic, and Environmental Concerns into sustainable development.

Integrated Management

Any combination of physical, technical, administrative, and legal practices relating to surface water and groundwater in a manner designed to increase combined benefits or achieve a more equitable apportionment of benefits from both sources. Also referred to as conjunctive use.

Concerns over loss of fishing culture resulting if quotas were purchased by large corporations.

Limited ownership of quota to 0.5% of total quota. This quota is much less attractive for big companies so they won't be attracted to the area. Leaves the economy there for the local residents and small businesses.

Residency requirement of quota owner. Quota owner must live near the fishery.

Limited vessel size to small trawlers. Large trawlers (usually owned by large companies are not allowed).

Key Points - Fisheries

- Alternative approaches to fisheries management have led to different outcomes (Newfoundland vs. Halibut).

- Key principles such as precautionary principle, adaptive management, and integrated management are important.

Market Forces

- the interaction of supply and demand that shapes a market economy.

- Adam Smith: invisible hand leads the economy which ends up being in the best interest of both the producer and the consumer.

System

A group of interacting, interrelated, or interdependent elements or parts that function together as a whole to accomplish a goal.

- Made up of components and relationships (interdependencies) between them.

- Systems often can be defined as having specific goals, purposes, or outputs (often multiple).

- Systems are embedded and exist at many scales (systems are usually subsystems and meta-systems)

- Examples - Respiratory system, electrical system, system of global trade, an ant colony, a corporation...

Sub-system

a self-contained system within a larger system.

Metasystem

The system under study resides within a broader contextual arrangement. almost same as sub-system.

social system

- Made up of Actors (Agents) and relationships (interdependencies) between them.

- 'Social Systems' as a term refers to all systems where humans (or groups of humans) are the primary components.

- Examples include a bakery, the global financial system, a family, Canada (as a country), the system of social status, this class, etc..

Economic System

- the structure of methods and principles that a society uses to produce and distribute goods and services.

- a social system of production, allocation & distribution, and consumption of goods and services within a society.

Economic Growth

when the output (total goods and services) of an economy grows because:

1: More land, labour, or capital (equipment, animal power, fossil fuels, etc.) are devoted to the production of goods and services.

2: The productivity of these factors of production (land, labour, capital) are increased.

To put it simply - economic growth is when more 'stuff' and 'services' are produced (and consumed).

Hunter/Gatherers of the Paleolithic

Stone Tools ~ 2,500,000 BCE (BC), ~200,000 BCE anatomically modern humans, Social groups, usually of less than 50 people, Very simple social systems of governance and economic production/exchange, By end of Paleolithic (~ 9000 BCE) humans had fire, simple tools, and simple weapons & had migrated across globe, Overall production and consumption in society was very low.

Technology

Knowledge and processes that can be applied to expand human capabilities.

The (first) Agricultural Revolution

- Dating back 10,000 years, the First Agricultural Revolution achieved plant domestication and animal domestication.

- ~ 9,000 B.C in some areas of the world.

- Major transformation of human social systems.

- Human settlements form and domestication of plants and animals begins.

- Increasingly complex social systems evolve.

- Individual Property Rights Institutions form for things like plants, animals, and land.

property rights

the rights individuals or firms have to the exclusive use of their property, including the right to buy or sell it

Institutions

- structures and mechanisms of social order and cooperation governing the behavior of a set of individuals. (World Bank, 2010).

- Institutions are the rules of the game in a society, or more formally , are the human devised constraints that shape human interaction (North, 1990)

- Think of institutions as all of the rules (formal institutions) and norms (informal institutions) that affect members of society.

Agricultural Surplus

agricultural production in excess of that which the producer needs for his or her own sustenance and that of their family and which is then sold for consumption by others

Specialization of Labour

the specialization of individual workers in the production of particular goods or services

Agricultural Surplus and Settlement Growth

- Agricultural Surplus Allows for Specialization of Labour & Increase in Trade

- Cities develop in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Indus Valley after 5400 BC.

The Early Modern Era

Starting with the Renaissance, the period from about 1400 through 1700 saw most of Europe transition from medieval social systems to early modern social systems. This included the rise of the scientific method, a greatly reduced influence of the Catholic Church, the rise of merchant capitalism and global interaction, and the rise of nation states.

Who controlled knowledge in the middle ages?

Catholic church controlled knowledge during the middle ages.

Who was Florence controlled by at the start of the middle ages?

At the start of the renaissance, Florence was controlled by merchants rather than monarchs or the church and it was a huge trading center.

Some Key Aspects of the Early Modern Era

- Decline in the influence of the Catholic Church - particularly in terms of influence over knowledge, governance, and economic production

- Rise of Scientific Method

- Rise of Liberalism (often now referred to as classic liberalism)

- a political and social philosophy that promotes individual rights, civil liberties, democracy, and free enterprise

- Contrasts with individuals being seen as having inherently different worth and status due to their birth status or religious standing

The Late Modern Era

- The 2nd Agricultural Revolution

- The Industrial Revolution

- Health Improvements and Population Rise

- The Rise of Capitalism (and related institutions)

- Government Led Modernization (Public Health, The New Deal and Fordism, Post War Investments)

Second Agricultural Revolution

- ~mid 17th through ~mid 19th century

- In the UK and much of Europe common lands were declared private property through enclosure acts which increased incentive to improve land productivity. It lead to modernization of farming.

- There were increased yields with new kinds of crops and innovative farming practices being developed and arriving from around the globe.

- Greatly increased agricultural production (economic growth) and freed up labour for other forms of work.

The Industrial Revolution

- ~ 1750 to 1900

- Technological changes led to dramatic productivity increases and to 'globalization'

- Agricultural Labour → Industrial Labour (people moved to cities as they were kicked out)

- Massive increase in coal consumption and beginnings of fossil fuel driven economy

- Accompanied/Accelerated by major institutional changes (enclosure acts, new banking system, democratic gov't, rise of capitalism, etc.)

Rise of Free Market Economic System

- UK in 1776

- Mercantile System: no free trade and no free immigration.

- Guild System: controlled skilled labour.

- economic decisions were highly political in nature.

Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations

- Promoted laissez-faire, free-market economy, and supply-and-demand economics.

- He was asking the questions: Who should direct the economy?, How should scarce things (labour, land, coal, food, nails, tobacco pipes, etc.) be managed?, What results in the greatest 'common good'?

Alternative Uses for Goods and Labour

Usually, there is more than one use for a specific good or labour. Therefore, a society must decide what to use that good/labour for according to need (just because you can, doesn't mean you should idea).

Ex:

- Should Land be used for pasture (grass for cattle grazing) or crops?

- How much labour should be put towards baking bread vs tanning leather?

-How much wheat should be put into bread making vs pasta making?

-Should a New Pizza Place Open on Whyte Ave?

How are decisions to allocate resources made now? How were they made pre Industrial Revolution?

These decisions are now made based on need and where the demand is. Laws of supply and demand are used to allocate resources in society. Pre-industrial revolution, these decisions were made by the church and were mostly based on Christianity rules. Need was overlooked. Tithes were mandatory even if someone couldn't afford to pay them. Ideas like the free market economy were suppressed by the church because they were considered to be a sin.

How did Adam Smith think poverty could be cured?

Adam Smith thought poverty could be cured by using a free market exchange. It would help everyone. There would be an invisible hand guiding the economy and people would inherently fulfill the laws of supply and demand without gov't intervention.

Which quote of Adam Smith's indicates that people are inherently inclined to look for their own good and therefore are somewhat naturally selfish and this would allow them to lead a free market economy by themselves without any gov't intervention?

Adam Smith's quote about the butcher, baker and brewer highlights this behavioural assumption in economics.

"It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker, that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest. We address ourselves, not to their humanity but to their self-love."

- Wealth of Nations, 1776.

Homo economicus or "economic man"

many economists feel that larger material pay-offs dominate other motives.

An 'Ideal Type' - Self Interested Individual who does a perfect cost-benefit analysis on every decision (production/consumption) based upon their own preferences. The man is motivated to employ his/her resources (land, labour, capital ($), etc.) in an efficient manner to achieve his/her personal desires.

However, there is no man that is the homo economicus because in real life, people usually don't only respond to money as an incentive. Aka people have feelings (companies however don't).

What causes cultural revolution and development in the human race?

Trade and the freedom to trade with one another and exchange goods for both our own benefits which unintentionally also ends up helping the person on the other end.

According to Adam Smith, when do people best promote the public's interest?

"...led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention... By pursuing his own interest he frequently promotes that of society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it."

-Wealth of Nations, 1776.

price system (market system)

Decentralized decision making process in which prices are terms (signals) under which people agree to make exchanges. Prices are always fluctuating to reflect the laws of supply and demand.

What happens in a free market economy?

In a free market (laissez-faire) economy, decision making power is decentralized and in the hands of individual members of society who are free to decide what to sell and buy, what to transport from place to place, what to produce, what labour to engage in, and so on.

How are prices decided in a free market economy?

Prices in free market are the result of the demand for goods and services (based on the preferences of free decision makers as per above) and the availability (scarcity) of those goods and services.

What are people like according to free market economy assumptions?

People are self-interested have incentives to maximize their own productivity and to value and protect their property.

What leads to most efficient use of resources in laissez faire economy?

'Market Forces' result in the most efficient use of resources.

market forces

the interaction of supply and demand that shapes a market economy

What Do Prices "Know" That You Don't?

Prices are a reflection of what is going on with a resource in the world. If prices are too high, there is a shortage of that item. If prices are too low, there is a surplus of that item. Prices are compared to a "genie with a crystal ball." They know what is going on with a certain item/resource.

What is Capitalism?

Capitalism is a system that is largely based upon the principles of free market theory just discussed. Indeed, for the purpose of this course (and most thing), you can consider Capitalism = Free Market Economic Systems

is there any country that is 100% capitalist?

No. No country has a system that is entirely capitalist (free market), but with the exception of Cuba and North Korea, most countries have substantial portions of their economy functioning as capitalist.

How did capitalism increase economic productivity?

The adoption of capitalism has been an important factor in increasing economic productivity and growth because it creates incentive structures that reward increased production.

Growth in the 20th Century

- More economies opened to market forces (capitalism) with varied approaches around the world.

- Governments began to manage capitalism in an effort to avoid frequent market crashes (crises) that would occur.

- Governments also greatly expanded modernization efforts including water systems, roads, school systems, hospital systems, highway systems, fossil fuel extraction, electrical grids, communications systems, airports and airlines, universities, etc.

What was the biggest side effect of the industrial revolution?

Dramatic Rise in Population. The population increased by 6 times as much during the industrial revolution.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

-The total output of all economic activity in the nation, including goods and services.

-GDP is one very common way of measuring the output of a society, however, later in the course we will learn that it has many shortcomings.

-The GDP is the total value of final goods and services produced (sold) within a territory during a specified period.

-When you hear that "economic growth this year was 3%" it that means the GDP increased by 3%.

-Essentially this means that 3% more 'stuff' was produced In the territory as measured using the GDP measure.

What has happend to GDP over the last millennium?

It is has increased greatly starting from the 1920s.

GDP per capita

Gross domestic product divided by the number of people in the population.

Malthusian Trap

Malthus's prediction that a rapidly increasing population will overuse natural resources, leading inevitably to a major public health disaster (which is what was happening in pre-industrial Europe).

When did the population of the Earth and the corresponding food supply for them 1st become sustainable?

Near the end of the 17th century (late 1660s-1690s) when the industrial revolution started to come into play.

What was important for the industrial revolution to successful?

The social, economic, political, and cultural institutions must advance simultaneously and fully utilize the new technological advancements. If even one of these institutions were held back, then progress could be halted or even reversed according to Braudel, 1979.

What happened to the trees in Ireland between 1600 and 1700?

Resources like trees were being consumed at an unsustainable rate and Ireland was almost completely deforested during this time period.

What is the primary condition for success of an industry according to Braudel, 1979?

With technological advancement, the output should increase faster than population initially. Then, the population will follow suit and grow as well.

Enclosure Acts (England)

peasants were forced out of the "Commons" (communal land) and the land held by the lords. Those lands became PRIVATIZED for the wealthy and the peasants became the labour force of the industrial revolution

What were the 4 most common power sources pre-industrial revolution (for input into production)?

1: animals

2: wind

3: water

4: humans

What 4 areas specifically saw growth during the start of the industrial revolution?

1: Energy Sources- an efficient rotary engine was designed to extract coal and operate machinery.

2: Fuel:

What has changed over the last century?

1: Housing quality has become so much better.

2: Cars and airplanes were invented which is an upgrade from horses and wheelbarrows.

3: There has been a decline in global poverty and quality of life has increased. Especially towards the end of the 1950s poverty started seeing a huge decline.

4: Health advancements - antibiotics like penicillin were invented - reduced the likelihood of dying from diseases.

5: Restaurants, movie theatres, and the entertainment industry has become more common.

Manifest Destiny

A notion held by nineteenth-century Americans (the 1800s) that the United States was destined to rule the continent, from the Atlantic to the Pacific. They felt they had the divine right to colonize other land and spread American beliefs to them.

Modernity and the Triumph of Humans over Nature

During the industrial revolution, people were starting to progress and "overcome" the constraints nature put on humans. Nature was now seen as smthn to overcome rather than to be embraced. Refrigerators, dams (hoover dam), antibiotics (penicillin), and airplanes all came out of this era and were a HUGE turning point for the human race.

USA in mid-1800s

-Landfills were common (pollution).

-Factories emitted pollution and this was common.

-Trees were chopped by the millions every day and not replanted.

Thoreau, Civil Disobedience

written after Thoreau was jailed for refusing to pay taxes that would support the Mexican War, a war that was fought to expand slavery. He believed in self-reliance and said people need very little to get by in life. He thought society was being overworked at their jobs and that they could get by with only one day of work if they chopped wood and gathered resources themselves rather than getting paid at your job and going out to buy it. He believed in morals and felt humans should see nature as part of them rather than somthing to be overcome.

he challenged ideas like:

-"humans needs industrial progress to be successful as a species."

-"humans need to be rich to be happy."

-"humans need to defeat nature and overcome its constraints."

His quote: "Thank God they [humans] cannot cut down the clouds."

Transcendentalism

A philosophy pioneered by Ralph Waldo Emerson in the 1830's and 1840's, in which each person has direct communication with God and Nature, and there is no need for organized churches. It incorporated the ideas that mind goes beyond matter, intuition is valuable, that each soul is part of the Great Spirit, and each person is part of a reality where only the invisible is truly real. Promoted individualism, self-reliance, and freedom from social constraints, and emphasized emotions.

Henry David Thoreau - 1854 'Walden'

-wrote an essay

-lived in a cottage by himself

-hated industrialization

-didn't agree with slavery - martin Luther king and ghandi were influenced by him.

George Perkins Marsh (1801-1882)

Farmer, linguist, and diplomat. Most remembered today for his book Man and Nature which recognized the correspondence of human and environmental systems and provided one of the first discussions of global climate change (global ecology).

-the idea was put forward in the mid-1800s but no one believed it at the time.

John James Audubon (1785-1851)

He was a gifted artist who preferred observing and painting birds and other wildlife. He began The Birds of America in 1820 and worked diligently to acquire patrons for the project. One of his followers, George Bird Grinnell, founded the first Audubon Society in 1886, dedicated to increasing awareness of and appreciation for nature. One of the 1st advocates for preserving nature.

- He loved painting passenger pigeons which are now extinct. Last passenger pigeon was in a zoo in Ohio and she died on Jan 14, 1911.

extermination

killing, especially of a whole group of people or animals/ extirpation - animal goes extinct in a certain area but not the whole world.

The Extermination of the American Bison

Bison would be shot if they crossed the railway track that went through the bison's grazing land. The American settlers wanted to wipe out the American Bison on purpose so they could instead fill that land with cattle instead that would benefit them more - cows and such. The purpose was to wipe out indigenous culture - b/c indigenous peoples used the bison for daily activities.

- the plan failed b/c the bison received protection in time.

National Parks and Conservation

John Muir - Naturalist and writer who was instrumental in the founding of many national parks and who co-founded the Sierra Club

Republican President Theodore Roosevelt created five new national parks, 51 federal bird sanctuaries, four national game refuges, 18 national monuments, and more than 230 million acres' worth of public land.

These were key acts in establishing the 'Conservation Movement'

Conservation Movement

A progressive reform movement focused on the preservation and sustainable management of the nation's natural resources - notably John Muir.

John Muir

- had an accident where he stabbed his eye and temporarily lost sight.

-when his sight came back he became all woke and zen and decided to quit his job and go on a hike in nature through America.

-There, he fell in love with nature and became known as a nature guide.

-When he returned to civilization, he became advocating for nature conversation. His writings were published and he became famous and gained followers for his cause.

-He succeeded in pressuring the government to set aside "Green zones" to preserve nature and also founded the Sierra Club - which is the biggest nature preservation club in the world today.

-He also succeeded in convincing President Roosevelt (whom he became friends with) to declare certain areas "National Parks."

Rise of Environmental Movement (Environmentalism)

- nature preservation became a much more common topic in the 1900s.

What would happen if there were no prices?

We would have no way of knowing where resources are urgently needed. Prices are a direct reflection of what resources are available in surplus, and what resources are scarce at the moment. The law of supply and demand suggests that prices will adjust themselves to indicate where resources should be allocated. If prices are higher than usual, then that resource is in high demand which means there is a shortage of it. If prices are lower than usual, they will be

Aldo Leopold (1887-1948)

-"Father of wildlife management" and of "the wilderness system in the US"

-worked as a wildlife control agent and part of his job was to kill wolves so that there would be more deer for hunters.

-then he saw a wolf who was sad so apparently he turned all nice.

Aldo Leopold and the Land Ethic

-His book "A Sand County Almanac" in 1949 gave rise to the notion of "Land Ethics."

"A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise."

"A land ethic changes the role of Homo Sapiens from conqueror of the land community to plain member and citizen of it"

Rachel Carson/Silent Spring (1962)

An American marine biologist wrote in 1962 about her suspicion that the pesticide DDT, by entering the food chain and eventually concentrating in higher animals, caused reproductive dysfunctions. In 1973, DDT was banned in the U.S. except for use in extreme health emergencies.

Rachel Carson

-Silent Spring (1962) exposed the hazards of DDT & questioned humanity's faith in technological progress.

-The manuscript was first serialized in the New Yorker magazine.

-This set the stage for the modern environmental movement.

1960's (DDT)

-President Kennedy ordered the science advisory committee to examine the issues raised by Carson's book.

-Debate shifted from 'IF' pesticides and chemicals were dangerous to 'Which ones' were more dangerous.

Rise of Environmentalism (1970's)

-In the 1970's the environmental movement becomes mainstream.

-Why?

-The influence of all of the historical leaders we have discussed and many others that we didn't discuss

-A number of prominent environmental disasters/issues in the 1960s and 70s (Cuyahoga River Fire, Santa Barbara oil spill, LA Smog, etc).

-First Earth Day Initiated

-OPEC Oil Embargo

- Images From Space

- Protest Music/Art arising from counter-culture 'hippy' movement.

-Environmental Protection Agency formed

-New NGOs such as Greenpeace form