Psych 3980 Midterm

Empiricism

the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation

evidence-based treatment

A psychotherapy technique whose effectiveness has been supported by empirical research

weight of the evidence

a conclusion drawn from reviewing scientific literature and considering the proportion of studies that is consistent with a theory

self-correcting

a process in which scientists make their research available for peer review, replication, and critique, with the goal of identifying and correcting errors in the research

applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

basic research

research whose goal is to enhance the general body of knowledge, without regard for direct application to practical problems

translational research

research that uses knowledge derived from basic research to develop and test solutions to real-world problems

Universalism

scientific claims are evaluated according to their merit, independent of the researcher's credentials or reputation; one of merton's four scientific norms

communality

scientific knowledge is created by a community and its findings belong to the community; one of merton's four scientific norms

disinterestedness

characteristic of scientists who should be objective and uninfluenced by biases or prejudices when conducting research; one of merton's four scientific norms

organized skepticism

scientists question everything, including their own theories, widely accepted ideas, and "ancient wisdom"; one of merton's four scientific norms

comparison group

a group in an experiment whose level on the independent variable differs from those of the treatment group in some intended and meaningful way

confound

A general term for a potential alternative explanation for a research finding (a threat to internal validity).

probabilistic

Describing the empirical method, stating that science is intended to explain a certain proportion (but not necessarily all) of the possible cases.

availability heuristic

a bias in intuition, in which people incorrectly estimate the frequency of something, relying predominantly on instances that easily come to mind rather than using all possible evidence in evaluating a conclusion

present/present bias

A bias in intuition, in which people incorrectly estimate the relationship between an event and its outcome, focusing on times the event and outcome are present, while failing to consider evidence that is absent and harder to notice.

confirmation bias

the tendency to consider only the evidence that supports a hypothesis, including asking only the questions that will lead to the expected answer

bias blind spot

the tendency for people to think that compared to others, they are less likely to engage in biased reasoning

empirical journal articles

a scholarly article that reports for the first time the results of a research study

effect size

the magnitude, or strength, of a relationship between two or more variables

paywalled

term referring to a peer-reviewed academic journal that the general public must pay to access; only people who are members of subscribing institutions can access the content

meta-analysis

a way of mathematically averaging the effect sizes of all the studies that have tested the same variables to see what conclusion that whole body of evidence supports

variable

an attribute that varies, having at least two levels, or values

level

one of the possible variations, or values, of a variable

constant

an attribute that could potentially vary but that has only one level in the study in question

measured variable

a variable in a study whose levels (values) are observed and recorded

manipulated variable

a variable in an experiment that a researcher controls, such as by assigning participants to its different levels (values)

construct

a variable of interest, stated at an abstract, usually defined as part of a formal statement of a psychological theory

conceptual variable

a variable of interest, stated at an abstract, or conversational, level

operational definition

the specific way in which a concept of interest is measured or manipulated as a variable in a study

operational variable

the specific way in which a concept of interest is measured or manipulated a s a variable in a study

Operationalize

To turn a conceptual definition of a variable into a specific measured variable or manipulated variable in order to conduct a research study

frequency claim

A claim that describes a particular rate or degree of a single variable

association claim

A claim about two variables, in which the value (level) of one variable is said to vary systematically with the value of another variable

correlate

To occur or vary together (covary) systematically, as in the case of two variables. See also correlational study, covariance

correlational study

A study that includes two or more variables, in which all of the variables are measured; can support an association claim

Possitive Association

An association in which high levels of one variable go with high levels of the other variable, and low levels of one variable go with low levels of the other variable; positive correlation

Scatterplot

A graphical representation of an association, in which each dot represents one participant in the study measured on two variables

negative association

An association in which high levels of one variable go with low levels of the other variable, and vice versa. Also called inverse association, negative correlation

zero association

a lack of systematic association between two variables. Also called zero correlation

causal claim

A claim arguing that a specific change in one variable is responsible for influencing the value of another variable

Validity

The appropriateness of a conclusion or decision

construct validity

An indication of how well a variable was measured or manipulated in a study

Generalizability

The extent to which the subjects in a study represent the populations they are intended to represent; how well the settings in a study represent other settings or contexts

external validity

An indication of how well the results of a study generalize to, or represent, individuals or contexts besides those in the study itself

statistical validity

The extent to which statistical conclusions derived from a study are accurate and reasonable

point estimate

A single estimate of some population value (such as a percentage, a correlation, or a difference) based on data from a sample

confidence interval

A given range indicated by a lower and upper value that is designed to capture the population value for some point estimate (e.g., percentage, difference, or correlation); a high proportion of CIs will capture the true population value

margin of error of the estimate

In the context of a percentage estimate, an inferential statistic providing a range of values that has a high probability of containing the true population value

covariance

The degree to which two variables go together. Also one of three criteria for establishing a causal claim, which states that, in a study's results, the proposed causal variable must vary systematically with changes in the proposed outcome variable

temporal precedence

One of three criteria for establishing a causal claim, stating that the proposed causal variable comes first in time, before the proposed outcome variable

internal validity

One of three criteria for establishing a causal claim; a study's ability to rule out alternative explanations for a causal relationship between two variables. Also called third-variable criterion

independent variable

In an experiment, a variable that is manipulated. In a multiple-regression analysis, a predictor variable used to explain variance in the criterion variable

dependent variable

In an experiment, the variable that is measured. In a multiple-regression analysis, the single outcome, or criterion variable the researchers are most interested in understanding or predicting. Also called outcome variable

principle of respect for persons

An ethical principle from the Belmont Report stating that research participants should be treated as autonomous agents and that certain groups deserve special protection

principle of beneficence

An ethical principle from the Belmont Report stating that researchers must take precautions to protect participants from harm and to promote their well-being

principle of justice

An ethical principle from the Belmont Report calling for a fair balance between the kinds of people who participate in research and the kinds of people who benefit from it

confidential study

A research study in which identifying information is collected, but protected from disclosure to people other than the researchers

deception

The withholding of some details of a study from participants (deception through omission) or the act of actively lying to them (deception through commission)

data fabrication

A form of research misconduct in which a researcher invents data that fit the hypothesis

data falsification

A form of research misconduct in which a researcher influences a study's results, perhaps by deleting observations from a data set or by influencing participants to act in the hypothesized way

conceptual definition

A researcher's definition of a variable at the theoretical level

self-report measure

A method of measuring a variable in which people answer questions about themselves in a questionnaire or interview

observational measure

A method of measuring a variable by recording observable behaviors or physical traces of behaviors; behavioral measure

physiological measure

method of measuring a variable by recording biological data

categorical variable

A variable whose levels are categories (e.g., male and female). Also called nominal variable

quantitative variable

A variable whose values can be recorded as meaningful numbers

ordinal scale

A quantitative measurement scale whose levels represent a ranked order, and in which distances between levels are not equal (e.g., order of finishers in a race

interval scale

A quantitative measurement scale that has no "true zero," and in which the numerals represent equal intervals (distances) between levels (e.g., temperature in degrees)

ratio scale

A quantitative measurement scale in which the numerals have equal intervals and the value of zero truly means "none" of the variable being measured

test-retest validity

The consistency in results every time a measure is used

interrater reliability

The degree to which two or more coders or observers give consistent ratings of a set of targets

internal reliability

In a measure that contains several items, the consistency in a pattern of answers, no matter how a question is phrased

correlation coefficient (r)

A single number, ranging from -1.0 to 1.0, that indicates the strength and direction of an association between two variables

slope direction

The upward, downward, or neutral slope of the cluster of data points in a scatterplot

strength

A description of an association indicating how closely the data points in a scatterplot cluster along a line of best fit drawn through them

average inter-item correlation

A measure of internal reliability for a set of items; it is the mean of all possible correlations computed between each item and the others

Cronbach's alpha

A correlation-based statistic that measures a scale's internal reliability

face validity

The extent to which a measure is subjectively considered a plausible operationalization of the conceptual variable in question

criterion validity

An empirical form of measurement validity that establishes the extent to which a measure is associated with a behavioral outcome with which it should be associated

known-groups paradigm

A method for establishing criterion validity, in which a researcher tests two or more groups who are known to differ on the variable of interest, to ensure that they score differently on a measure of that variable

convergent validity

An empirical test of the extent to which a self-report measure correlates with other measures of a theoretically similar construct

discriminant validity

An empirical test of the extent to which a self-report measure does not correlate strongly with measures of theoretically dissimilar constructs

content validity

The extent to which a measure captures all parts of a defined construct

forced-choice questions

A survey question format in which respondents give their opinion by picking the best of two or more options

Likert Scale

A survey question format using a rating scale containing multiple response options anchored by the specific terms strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree, and strongly disagree

semantic differential scale

A survey question format using a response scale whose numbers are anchored with contrasting adjectives

leading question

A type of question in a survey or poll that is problematic because its wording encourages one response more than others, thereby weakening its construct validity

double-barreled questions

A type of question in a survey or poll that is problematic because it asks two questions in one, thereby weakening its construct validity

negatively worded questions

A question in a survey or poll that contains negatively phrased statements, making its wording complicated or confusing and potentially weakening its construct validity

response set

A shortcut respondents may use to answer items in a long survey, rather than responding to the content of each item. Also called nondifferentiation

acquiscence

Answering "yes" or "strongly agree" to every item in a survey or interview. Also called yea-saying

fence sitting

Playing it safe by answering in the middle of the scale for every question in a survey or interview

socially desirable responding

Giving answers on a survey (or other self-report measure) that make one look better than one really is. Also called faking good

faking bad

Giving answers on a survey (or other self-report measure) that make one look worse than one really is

observer bias

A bias that occurs when observer expectations influence the interpretation of participant behaviors or the outcome of the study

observer effect

A change in behavior of study participants in the direction of observer expectations. Also called expectancy effect

masked design

A study design in which the observers are unaware of the experimental conditions to which participants have been assigned. Also called blind design

Reactivity

A change in behavior of study participants (such as acting less spontaneously) because they are aware they are being watched

unobtrusive observation

An observation in a study made indirectly, through physical traces of behavior, or made by someone who is hidden or is posing as a bystander