Psychology Final

Functionalism

associated with William James and focuses on survival and adaptation

William James

founder of functionalism and father of American psychology; influenced by Darwin asked how thoughts, feelings, and behaviors help us survive

behaviorism

associated with John Watson and B.F. Skinner; major foundational branch of psychology, define psychology as "scientific study of observable behavior" without reference to mental processes

John Watson

behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat

B.F. Skinner

behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats

Ivan Pavlov

associated with classical conditioning, experimented with dogs in which he trained them to salivate at the sound of a bell

psychoanalytic psychology

emphasized the ways our unconscious mind and childhood experiences affect our behavior

Sigmund Freud

Austrian physician, invented psychoanalysis, work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; dream analysis

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory
ex: sleep boosts memory

methods of research

replicable tests to see whether...corelation, causation, or coincidence (case study, survey, longitudinal study, cross-sectional studies, naturalistic observations)

case study

examines one individual in depth in hopes of revealing things true of us all

survey

examines many cases in less depth, prone to exaggeration, utilizes random sampling of population for best results, easily subjected to bias

longitudinal study

data is collected about a group of participants over a number of years; takes time and may lose touch with recipients

cross-sectional studies

data is collected from groups of participants of different ages and compared so that conclusions can be drawn about differences due to age

naturalistic observations

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without interfering; describes but doesn't explain

correlations

observed associations between two variables

positive correlation

a direct relationship between two variables in which an increase in one is related to an increase in the other, and a decrease in one is related to a decrease in the other

negative correlation

as one variable increases, the other decreases

what is the goal of research?

to describe, explain, predict, and influence

pre-research decisions

ask questions about limited topic
look for evidence
research method depends on research

sample

a small piece of a bigger whole, must be representative

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

stratified sample

deliberately pick individuals who represent the various subgroups in the population being studied

experiments

researchers can change more than one factor to observe the effect; replication is key

measure of central tendency

mean, median, mode

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

axons

fibers that extend from neurons and transmit electrochemical impulses from that neuron to the dendrites of other neurons

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron; tiny little place where bog things happen

nervous system

the body's electrochemical communication network consisting of all the nerve cells of the CNS and PNS

central nervous system (CNS)

brain and spinal cord; the body's decision maker

spinal cord

nerves that run up and down the length of the back and transmit most messages between the body and brain

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body for gathering and transmitting info

somatic nervous system (SNS)

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movement of skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

a set of nerves that carries involuntary and automatic commands that control blood vessels, body organs, and glands

sympathetic

fight or flight, arouses energy, increases blood pressure blood sugar and heart beat, and decreases digestion

parasympathetic

rest and digest, conserves energy, calming and breathing

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream; outlasts neuro responses

hormones

chemical substances that travel through the body and affect other tissues

norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal; undersupply can depress mood; both neurotransmitter and hormone

pituitary gland

the endocrine system's most influential gland; under the influence of the hypothalamus, regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

sleep apnea

a disorder in which the person stops breathing for brief periods while asleep; associated with obesity in men

substance use disorder

continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk; people may exhibit impaired control, social disruption, risky behavior, and physical effects of tolerance and withdrawal

addiction

compulsive craving of drugs, alcohol, or certain behaviors despite known harmful consequences

types of psychoactive drugs

depressants, stimulants, hallucinogens

depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

alcohol

liquid depression that shrinks the brain and liver and changes personality

DTs (delirium tremens)

violent whole body reactions to absence of alcohol

Barbituates (sedative/hypnotics)

benzodiazepenes, xanax, valium, klonopin, ativan

opiates/narcotics

heroin, morphine, and codeine; relieve pain, provide intense feeling of plessure, relaxation, and euphoria

benzodiazepines

drugs that lower anxiety and reduce stress

stimulants

drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

nicotine

a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco; reaches the brain in 7 seconds, higher rates of depression

cocaine

produces quick rush of euphoria then an agitated crash of depression

methamphetamine

a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels

hallucinogens

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

LSD

a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide)

marijuana

A plant whose leaves, buds, and flowers are usually smoked for their intoxicating effects that disrupts memory formation and immediate recall, impairs brain development, and lingers in the body for weeks

chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

fraternal twins

twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs; they are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

Jean Piaget

focused on cognitive development in children; determined intellectual growth reflects an unceasing struggle to make sense of our world and experiences

4 stages of cognitive development

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational

sensorimotor

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

preoperational

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

egocentrism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view; developmentally normal view that the world revolves around them

concrete operations

Piaget's stage in which children learn such concepts as conservation and mathematical transformations; about 7 - 11 years of age

conservation

the understanding that the physical properties of an object or substance do not change when appearances change but nothing is added or taken away

formal operations

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors, difficulty interpreting emotions; 4 times as likely in boys

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

Harlow's monkeys

through scientific experiment, these monkeys displayed the bond attachment associated with Social development showing the need for physical contact as the monkeys clung to the softer artificial "mother" when scared, feeding and when combined with other factors such as warmth, rocking and feeding became even more appealing.

parenting styles

reflect varying degrees of control: authoritative, permissive, negligent, authoritarian

democratic/authoritative family

children and adolescents participate in decisions affecting their lives; parents encourage open discussion, act realistically, elements of respect, and have rules

permissive/laissez-faire family

children have the final say; parents are unrestraining, make few demands, and offer little to no punishment

negligent families

parents do not seek a relationship at all, are unattentive, and uninvolved

authoritarian families

parents attempt to control, shape, and evaluate the behavior and attitudes of children in accordance with a set code of conduct; drill sargents that impose strict rules

Effects of parenting styles

respect for boundaries/authority
development of trust
empathy
communication skills
cooperation/negotiation skills

Lawrence Kohlberg

moral development; presented boys moral dilemmas and studied their responses and reasoning processes in making moral decisions. Most famous moral dilemma is "Heinz" who has an ill wife and cannot afford the medication. Should he steal the medication and why?

Kohlberg's stages of moral development

preconventional, conventional, postconventional

preconventional morality

first level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by the consequences of the behavior

conventional morality

second level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by conforming to the society's norms of behavior

postconventional morality

third level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the person's behavior is governed by moral principles that have been decided on by the individual and that may be in disagreement with accepted social norms

Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development

(1) Trust vs. Mistrust;
(2) Autonomy vs. Shame;
(3) Initiative vs. Guilt;
(4) Industry vs. Inferiority;
(5) Identity vs. Confusion;
(6) Intimacy vs. Isolation;
(7) Generativity vs. Self-absorption;
(8) Integrity vs. Despair.

infancy (1 year)

trust vs. mistrust

1-3 years

autonomy vs shame and doubt

3-6 years

initiative vs guilt

6-puberty

competence vs inferiority

adolescence-20's

identity vs role confusion

young adults (20s-40s)

intimacy vs isolation

middle adults (40s-60s)

generativity vs stagnation

late adulthood (60 & up)

integrity vs despair

Alzheimer's disease

a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response

respondent behaviors

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus