ANATOMY SUMMARY TOPIC

CELL

living unit of the organism , being the structural & functional unit

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1. Stromal cells (maintaining)
2. Parenchymal cells (active,dividing)

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ex of cell being the structural and functional unit 2 types

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* PROTECTION
* ABSPORTION
* SECRETION
* EXCRETION
* TRANSPORT
* IRRITABILITY
* REPRODUCTION/PROPAGATION

BASIC FUNCTIONS OF CELLS

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1. EPITHELIAL TISSUE
2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
3. MUSCULAR TISSUE
4. NERVOUS TISSUE

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4 CLASSIFICATION OF TISSUES

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1. CELL
2. TISSUES
3. ORGANS
4. SYSTEM
5. ORGANISM

FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATIONAL OF THE HUMAN BODY & CONTROL OF THE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT" MILLIEU INTERIOR”

INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT (60% FLUID)

ECF ( EXTRACELLULAR FLUID)

* “interstitial spaces”
* spaces outside the cell

“MILLIEU INTERIOR”

* ions, nutrients, in the matrix are in constant motion throughout the body

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1. NA/ SODIUM
2. CL/ CHLORIDE
3. HCO3/ BICORNATE IONS
4. O2/ OXYGEN
5. C6H1206/GLUCOSE
6. FATTY ACIDS & AMINO ACIDS
7. CO2 WASTES

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CONTENTS IN THE ECF(EXTRACELLULAR FLUID)

ICF ( INTRACELLULAR FLUID)

* inside the cell

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* K/potassium
* Mg/ magnesium
* PO4/ phosphate

INTRACELLULAR FLUID ( ICF) CONTENTS

HOMEOSTASIS

* maintenance of static or constant condition in the internal environment
* to cause equilibrium or balance

examples of homeostasis

1. circulatory system→Arterial O2 -------- tissue delivery

/ /


2. Venous / (CO2) /

/ /

EXCRETION --- lungs → CO2

EX.

* G.I.T > dissolved nutrient → absorbed & carried to the blood stream

→ ECF

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1. NERVOUS SYSTEM
2. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

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REGULATORY MECHANISM OF HOMEOSTASIS:

NERVOUS SYSTEM

* electrical impulse of regulation

a.) sensory input portion

b.) CNS (integrative portion)

c.) Motor output portion

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

* hormonal secretion regulation from 8 major glands

INSULIN

* controls glucose metabolism
* served as a carrier transport

ADRENOCORTICAL HORMONE

* control Na+ (sodium), K+ ( potassium),proteins

PARATHYROID HORMONE

* controls bones Ca+ 2 (calcium) & PO4-2 ( calcium phosphate)

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

* regulates mainly metabolic functions

CONTROL MECHANISM

* involves regulation Oxygen & Carbon Dioxide level

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O2 buffering function by the Hemoglobin of the Red Blood Cells

* ( increase ) CO2 level stimulates and excites the Respiratory Center → to (increase) RR, (increase) rate of Oxygen

ex. CONTROL MECHANISM

BARO RECEPTOR SYSTEM

\- located in the bifurcation of Internal Carotid & Aorta

\- regulates arterial blood pressure

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1. Negative Feedback: stability
2. Positive Feedback: vicious cycle that leads to instability & death

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The mechanism of control that leads to obtaining balance are mostly in the form of:

(2 process)

BLEEDING:

* in + FEED MECH→ viscious cycle to cause→ HEMORRHAGE
* in - FEED MECH→ controls bleeding by producing clots

ex.of POSITIVE FEEDBACK MECH & NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECH

ORGANELLES

* micro structures w/specific function w/ in the cells

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* NUCLEUS
* ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
* RIBOSOMES
* LYSOSOMES
* PROTEASES
* PEROXISOMES

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TYPES OF ORGANELLES IN THE CELL

NUCLEUS

* encloses genetic material, DNA

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

* composed of 2 types:


1. ROUGH ER
2. SMOOTH ER

SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

→ synthesizes steroids, hormones, fatty acids

ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

→ synthesizes amino acids and enzymes

RIBOSOMES

* protein synthesis

MITOCHONDRIA

* manufacture A.T.P’s ( adenosine triphosphate) energy source of the tissues
* accomplished through aerobic & anaerobic mechanism

LYSOSOMES

→ produces hydrolases

→ enzymes that destroy foreign bodies

PROTEASES

→ an enzyme that functions to degrade denatured or non-functional polypeptides

PEROXISOMES

→ cell type that produces enzymes as peroxidases that oxidises organic substances for purposes of detoxification

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76, UBIQUITINS

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There are__ amino acid proteins found in all cell types synthesize as enzymes & highly conserved during evolution. They are known as “___”

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1. A-L IDURONIDASE
2. HEPARIN SULFATE & SULFAMIDASE
3. HEXOAMINIDASE -A
4. BETA-D - GLUCOSIDASE

5 .PHOSPHOTRANSFERASE

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FAULTY ENZYME OF A CONDITION:


1. HURRIER DISEASE
2. SAN FILIPPO SYNDROME
3. TAY- SACH’S DISEASE
4. GAUCHER’S DISEASE
5. I-CELL DISEASE

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1. Skeleton & nervous tissue
2. Skeleton & nervous system
3. Nervous System
4. Liver & Splee
5. Skeleton & nervous system

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AFFECTED ORGANS:


1. Hurrier disease
2. San Filippo Syndrome
3. Tay- Sach’s Disease
4. Gaucher’s Disease
5. I- cell disease

ATP production with in the cell

1 molecule of Glucose→ Insulin( served as a carrier transport)→ Enters the cell & acted upon by an enzyme in the cytosol (G6PD/ Glucose 6 phosphate dehaydrogenase) → (yields)→ __2 atps & pyruvate__ → becomes a substrate & acted by an enzyme pyruvate kinase to enter the mitochondrion & enters the Kreb cycle

Kreb’s Cycle

* series of chemical activities as oxidation & reduction

1. AEROBIC PATHWAY
2. ANAEROBIC PATHWAY

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2 mechanism pathways of the Kreb’s Cycle:

AEROBIC PATHWAY

* process which involves catabolic activites using oxygen (O2)
* __yields 34 atps__ + lactic acids + CO2

ANAEROBIC PATHWAY

* utilizes lactic acid substrate & acted by a lactic dehydrogenase to Yield > yields 2 ATP’S + CO2 + H2O

TOTAL= 36 + 2 in the cytosol (38 atp produced on 1 mol of glucose)

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1. SIMPLE DIFFUSION
2. CARRIER MEDIATED TRANSPORT

MECHANISM OF TRANSPORT OF THE CELL:

SIMPLE DIFFUSION

* accomplish by random movement of solutes from greater concentration to a lesser concentration thru a process known as

“ Brownian Movement”

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1\.Facilitated Transport Mechanism


2. Active Transport Mechanism

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Carrier Mediated Transport 2 forms

Facilitated Transport Mechanism

* uses a co-transporter

ex insulin transporter of glucose

Active Transport Mechanism

* utilizes ATP as the transporter in cases of ION exchange in the cell membrane as Na- K exchange or “pump”

Osmosis

> fluid mechanics & pressure

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1\.Hydrostatic (p)


2. Oncotic(p)

2 types of pressure

Hydrostatic (P)

* pressure of the fluid plasma of blood as a driving force

Oncotic (P)

* pressure > intracellular cohesiveness of the cells served as the opposing pressure:

(ex)kidneys- tubular system of excretion & secretion

Bulk Transport Mechanism

* transport larger molecules in & out of the cell

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1\.Pinocytosis

2\.Phagocytosis

Endocytosis is composed of 2

Pinocytosis

taking in large volume of fluids

Phagocytosis

process of taking in large molecules on the cell

Exocytosis

process of excreting out large molecules outside the cell

DIFFERENTIATION

process of specification, synthesizes & accumulates large amounts of microfilament proteins, the resulting cells (muscle cells) are specialized to efficiently convert chemical energy into work ( contractile force)

Blastomere

it gives rise to all cell types

from zygote (fertilized ovum) → blastomeres (embryonic stem cell)→

Gives rise to all cell types

ex. muscle cell precursors elongate into a fiber like cells → synthesizes & accumulate large amounts of microfilament proteins → Actin & myosin → the resulting cells (muscle cells) are specialized to efficiently convert chemical energy into work ( contractile force)

ex of cell differentiation & how do cell differentiate

CELLULAR FUNCTIONS IN SOME SPECIALIZED CELLS:


1. Muscle & other contractile cells
2. Epithelial Cells
3. Nervous & Sensory Cells
4. Cells of Digestive Glands
5. Mucous Gland Cells
6. Adrenal glands, testis, ovary cells
7. Cells of the kidneys & salivary glands
8. Macrophages & some WBC’s
9. Fat cells
10. Cells lining the Intestine

1. movements
2. forms adhesive & tight junctions between (protects surfaces)
3. converts physical & chemical stimuli- Act. Pot
4. Synthesizes & secretes enzymes
5. Synthesis & Secretes mucin
6. Synthesis & secretions of steroid hormones
7. Ion transport
8. Intracellular Digestion
9. Lipid Storage
10. Metabolic Absorption

CELLULAR FUNCTIONS IN SOME SPECIALIZED CELLS:

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1. Integral Proteins
2. Peripheral Proteins
3. One pass or Multi Pass Transmembrane Proteins

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PLASMA MEMBRANE: COMPONENT PROTEINS :(3)

Integral Proteins

directly incorporated w/in the lipid bilayer

Peripheral Proteins

exhibit a looser association & formed at the surface areas of lipid layer

One Pass or Multi Pass Transmembrane Proteins

Having a larger span from external to internal areas. Extends across 2 lipid layers,

* Having carbohydrate moiety & glycolipids> projecting outside/inside the membrane
* Important components of specific molecules called (R) Receptors
* These component particulate materials are useful for trans-membrane transport

1. Opening of the ligand Channels
2. Attachment & stimulation of Guanine Nucleotide
3. Acted by Guanine Phosphate (enzyme)
4. Attachment of Alpha Subunits creating (GDD) Guanine diphosphate
5. Attachment by cyclic AMP (amino monophosphate)- adenylate cyclase
6. substitution of Guanine amino acid to Adenine amino acid-producing (adenine diphosphate)
7. Mobilization of Beta & Gamma Protein Subunits
8. Attachment of Extracellular Phosphate to ADP
9. Production of ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

Intra-membranous conversion of high energy phosphate bonds

* Electrical Pot ( carried by neurotransmitter towards the Plasma membrane)
* HOW DOES IT HAPPENS??

Microfilaments

functions as to cause contractile activity in cells as a result of interaction of Actin & myosin

1. G actins
2. F actins
* are organized in several forms

Actin filaments are 2 forms :

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HOW DO THEY ARRANGED?


1. in skeletal muscles :

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* arranged w/myosin filaments

2. in most cells:

* arranged in network just beneath the plasma membrane involves in changing
* cell shape during endocytosis, exocytosis, & locomotion of some cells

3. involves in “cytoplasmic streaming”

( shifting, moving cytoplasmic components)

4. involves in ‘‘purse-string”

(myosin, to cause cleavage in mitotic cells)

5. actin filaments

cells to move as stress fibers

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1\.Keratins

2\.Vimentinse

3\.Desmin

4\.Glial fibrillary acidic proteins

5\.Neurofilaments

Intermediate filaments: (5)

Keratins (cytokeratins)

* seen in epithelium & hard structures


* from epidermal cells (nails, horns, feathers, scales, scabs, etc)

Vimentins

mesenchymall cells as:

a. macrophages

b. chondroblasts

c. fibroblasts

d. endothelial cells etc.

Desmin

in muscles both striated & smooth muscle tissues

Glial Fibrillary Acidic Proteins

in glial cells/ neurons:as astrocytes

Neurofilaments

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\: nerve cell bodies & processes

APOPTOSIS

* programmed cell death as in aging cells

NECROSIS

pathological cell death

Cell Renewal/ tissue regeneration

> accomplish by “PROGENITOR CELLS” , committed cells for purposes of dividing & differentiation

TISSUES ( 4 BASIC TYPE)


1. Epithelial tissues
2. Connective tissues
3. Muscular tissues
4. Nervous tissues

TISSUES ( 4 BASIC TYPE)

EPITHELIUM

forms cellular sheets that covers the surfaces of the body & line the cavities

EPITHELIUM MAIN FUNCTIONS:


1. covering, lining & protecting surfaces
2. absorption (intestines)
3. secretions ( epithelial cells of the glands)
4. contractility (as myoepithelial cells)

EPITHELIUM MAIN FUNCTIONS

STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS ( EPITHELIUM):


1. Squamous cells
2. Cuboidal cells


3. Columnar cells

STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS ( EPITHELIUM)

Lamina Propria

>epithelium rest on a connective tissue

>function as support for nutrition, binds other structures

Papillae

the surface area between the epithelium & lamina propria by evaginations or convolutions, seen mostly in areas w/c are ==subject to friction== (skin,tongue)

BASAL LAMINA & BASEMENT MEMBRANES

BASAL LAMINA

all epithelial cells in contact w/ subjacent connective tissue have “ felt-like sheet” of extracellular compartment material called ____

1\.Lamina Densa

2\.Lamina Lucida

* lung alveoli & renal glomeruli > Basal lamina is thicker due to fusion from each Epithelial layers

The Basal Lamina consists of network fine fibrils

Lamina Densa

dense layer

Lamina Lucida

lucent layers

RETICULAR LAMINA

The basal lamina are attached to Reticular fibers made up of Type III collagens from the underlying connective tissue, these proteins produced by connective tissue cells that forms a layer called ________

1. Epithelial tissue
2. Muscle cells
3. Adipose tissue/cells
4. Schwann cells

Cell structures found in Basal Lamina

Schwann cells

these cells secrete laminin, type 4 collagen & other matrix components

1. Laminin
2. Type IV collagens
3. Entactin ( Nidogen)
4. Perlecan

Macromolecular components:

Laminin, integrins

large glycoproteins that self-assumed to form a “lace-like” sheet immediately below the cells & held in place by the transmembrane

_____

Type 4 (IV) Collagens

contain 3 polypeptide chains that self assemble same as laminin

Entactin (Nidogen)

a glycoprotein, having glycosylated proteins that served to link together Laminin & type 4 collagen

Perlecan

> a proteoglycan w/ heparin sulfate served to strengthen the metrical substance ( all together are secreted at basal poles of epithelial cells)