Social Psychology 2

Attitude

Positive or negative affective cognition of a person or idea. Positive, negative, reaction to a person, object, or idea

It is possible to hold conflicting attitudes about

The same thing at a conscious and unconscious level

Attitude formation is

Quick and automatic

How attitudes are measured

-self-report measures: attitude scale (e.g likert scale), bogus pipeline (lie detector device to get responders to give truthful answers, most of the time not real)

-covert measures: video tape, facial electomyograph, brain imaging— (participant is observed, measures intensity not whether or not it’s positive or negative)

-implicit association test- attitudes we aren’t aware of

How are attitudes formed

Strong likes and dislikes are rooted in our genetic makeup

Our most cherished attitudes are learned

Evaluative conditioning: associating certain things with positive or negative connotations

How are attitudes learned

Exposure to attitude objects

Rewards and punishments

Attitudes expressed by parents, friends, and enemies

Our social and cultural context

Is the assumption that attitudes influence behavior a valid one? La Pierre’s Research

LaPiere’s: asked 250 restaurants if they would refuse a Chinese couple that came to their restaurant. 90% said yes (self-proclaimed prejudice). Took a Chinese couple to the restaurant and only 2 refused. Thus, he deduced that attitude does not influence behavior.

Is the assumption that attitudes influence behavior a valid one? Wickers Research

Wicker (environmental psychologist) believed that the design of the setting creates attitudes. We rely heavily on situational cues.

Is the assumption that attitudes influence behavior a valid one? Kraus’ Research

Kraus said that the level of correspondence between the attitude measure and the behavior is important. Specific attitudes toward Chinese in general is not the same as asking about this specific couple (La Piere). Attitudes will correlate with behavior only if the attitude measure closely correlates with the behavior.

Theory of planned behavior

According to the theory of planned behavior, attitudes toward a specific behavior combine with subjective norms (what others think we should do) and perceived behavior control (if lack confidence in ability to do behavior, wont do it) to influence a person’s intentions. These intentions, in turn, guide but do not completelydetermine behavior.

Attitude only predicts behavior when we truly

intend to. All three (attitude toward behavior, subjective norm, perceived behavior control) can be present and we still won’t act.

Why are some attitudes stronger than others?

Can be rooted in our genetic makeup and some psychological factors: 1)they directly effect personal outcomes/2)deeply held philosophical, political, and religious values/ 3) they are a concern to our close friends, family, and others in our in group

You can strengthen an attitude by

Attacking it. People will try to defend it in response

Two routes to persuasion

The dual process model of persuasion assumes that we do not always process communication the same way:

Central route to persuasion

Peripheral Route to Persuasion

Persuasion

The process by which attitudes are changed

Central Route to Persuasion

person thinks critically about a communication and is influenced by the strength of its arguments. Neither intelligence nor self-esteem affects vulnerability to persuasive communications. we think critically about a message we’ve heard. Major assumption that people listen and think about what is communicated to them

-elaboration

-self-validation hypothesis

Peripheral route to persuasion

Person does not think about a communication and is influenced by superficial cues. Superficial images. When we focus on cues and heuristics.

-simple minded heuristics

-attitude embodiment effects

Elaboration

The process of thinking about and scrutinizing an argument

central route to persuasion is a rational process but does not guarantee

objectivity or truth seeking

Route selection

The route taken depends on whether the recipient of the persuasive message has the ability and the motivation to take the central route

In the absence of either, they will rely on peripheral cues

The way a recipient processes a persuasive communication depends on three factors

Source: who is presenting the message

Message: what the message say and in what context

Audience: to whom the message is directed

What makes a source of persuasion credible

Competence and Trustworthiness

What makes a source of persuasion likeable

Similarity and physical attractiveness

The Sleeper Effect

A psychological phenomenon where initially discounted information becomes more persuasive over time.

ex: believing information after a high credibility source informs you

What makes an effective message

-Most effective strategy depends on whether the audience uses central or peripheral route

-Length of communication:

-central process: quality of argument is more important than length

-peripheral processing often uses the heuristic “the longer the message, the more valid it must be”

Recency effect

When decision is immediately made after second message, when it’s still fresh In your mind

The tendency to remember information that is presented at the end of a list or sequence.

how discrepant should a message be from the audience’s existing position?

Moderate discrepancy does produce the most audience change. In the beginning exercise caution, avoid outright rejection of the message by avoiding too much change at once. The more personally important an issue is, the more resistant to change the message recipient will be.

Fear Appeals can be highly effective if

if the message also provides clear and reassuring advice about how to cope with the threatened danger

Why do fear appeals need to be given with advice on how to cope with the threatened danger?

In the absence of clear instructions for coping, people feel helpless, and they panic and tune out the message

Positive feelings activate the

Peripheral route

When people are in a good mood

They’re easily persuadable.

Agreeable, open to persuasion, sociable, generous, positive in their outlook, decisive but with relatively little thought

Need for cognition

A personality variable that distinguished people on the basis of how much they enjoy effortful cognitive activities. People high in need for cognition need a lot of information and analysis, but those who don’t, take the peripheral route.

Ex: reading

Self-monitoring

Regulating own behaviors across situations due to concern for public self-presentation

High self monitors regulate themselves and adapt themselves to people and situations, but low self monitors stay consistent across time

Regulatory fit

proposed that people are more likely to be influenced by messages that fit their frame of mind and “feel right.” In

particular, they noted that in an effort to regulate their own emotion state, some individuals are promotion-oriented (drawn to the pursuit of success, achievement, and their ideals), whereas others are more prevention-oriented (protective of what they have, fearful of failure, and vigilant about avoiding loss).Promotion-oriented versus prevention oriented

Positive vs negative approach

High self monitors are

More persuaded by messages of improvement

Low self-monitors are

More persuaded by messages with information rather than what’s in it for them

Should you forewarn someone that they’re receiving a message?

No

Forwarning

Knowing someone is going to persuade you. More likely to resist persuasion

Inoculation hypothesis

The idea that exposure to weak versions of persuasive argument increase later resistance to that argument

Psychological resistance

The theory that people react against threats to their freedom by asserting themselves and perceiving the threatened freedom as more attractive

Cognitive Dissonance

Theory that K

The theory that inconsistent cognition (values, beliefs, info) aroused psychological tension that people become motivated to reduce

Conditions for cognitive dissonance

The attitude discrepancy behavior was chosen freely and with some knowledge of the consequences

Cognitive dissonance and attitude change areMore likely to occur when

There is insufficient justification (A condition in which people freely perform an attitude-discrepant behavior without receiving a large reward) or insufficient deterrence (A condition in which people refrain from engaging in a desirable activity even when only mild punishment is

threatened.) for an attitude-discrepant behavior

Festinger and Carlsmith

Classic experiment on dissonance

Pegboard experiment

Do people often come to like what they suffer for?

Yes! We alter our attitudes to justify our suffering

The more time or money or effort you choose to invest in something

The more anxious you will feel if the outcome proves disappointing

After making a difficult decision people rationalize the decision by

Exaggerating the positive features of the chosen alternative and the negative features of the unchosen alternative

Four steps to arouse or reduce cognitive dissonance

An attitude discrepant behavior must produce unwanted negative consequences

There must be a feeling of personal responsibility for the pleasant outcomes of behavior

There must be physiological arousal that produces a state of discomfort and tension that the person seeks to reduce

The person must attribute the arousal to the attitude discrepant behavior

Alternative routes to self-persuasion

Self-perception theory

Impression management theory

Self-esteem theories

Self-perception theory

We infer how we feel by observing ourselves and the circumstance of our own behavior

Impression-management theory

What matters is not a motive to be consistent but a motive to appear consistent

Self-esteem theories

Acts that arouse dissonance do so because they threaten the self-concept

Behavioral ethics

The study of how individuals behave when facing temptations to cheat, steal, plagiarize, commit fraud, or otherwise behave unethically

Two types of problems have been addressed in ethics

Unintentional lapses in ethics

Acts of intentional wrongdoing committed to serve personal interests

Compliance

A behavioral change elicited by a direct request.

Mindless, done without thinking

Obedience

Behavioral change produced by commands of authority

Chameleon Effect

As humans we behaviorally and cognitively mimic each other. It is involuntary and subtle. Helps us with social engagement. People don’t do this the same way.

those with higher empathetic concern and perspective taking are more likely to

Engage in mimicry

Conformity

Tendency to change perceptions, opinions, or behavior in ways that are consistent with group norms.

ex: following traffic laws and following social norms

Sherif’s line study

A classic social psychology experiment conducted by Muzafer Sherif to investigate how individuals perceive and conform to group norms. Participants estimated the movement of a stationary light in a dark room and their estimates converged over time due to the influence of group consensus. This study demonstrated the power of social influence and the formation of shared beliefs. Participants are more likely to pick the wrong line if those before them all picked the same line.

Sherif’s studies

Because of ambiguity, participants turned to each other for guidance

Informational influence, private acceptance

Asch’s studies

Obvious that the group was wrong, but found self in awkward position

Normative influence, public conformity

Informational Influence

People conform because they believe other people are more correct in their judgment. You’re just not sure, and look to others for more accurate information

Normative Influence

people conform out of fear of being ostracized

Why do People Conform?

Information Influence and Normative Influence

Types of conformity

Private Conformity and Public Conformity

Private conformity

True acceptance. Coming to believe a group norm or that others are correct.

The act of changing one's beliefs or behaviors to align with a group's norms or expectations in private settings, such as when alone or with close friends. It involves internalizing the group's standards and conforming to them internally, even when not in the presence of others.

Public Conformity

Overt change in behavior in response to influence. Only superficial, doesn’t correspond to private beliefs.

Behavior change in response to social pressure, conforming to group norms and expectations in public settings.

Majority Influence

Group Size: magic number is 3-4, immediate group. After that, it’s negligible. How many distinct others do we see as agreeing.

Awareness of Group Norm

Having an Ally in Dissent: A single confederate will succumb to social influence far more than an individual with an Ally

Effect of Age: conformity peaks in teens and declines as you get older

Gender Differences:

Moscovici: Nonconformists derive power from

the style of their behavior. It is not just what nonconformists say that matters but how they say it.

Minorities must be (to have influence)

Forceful, persistent, and unwavering in support of their position to have any influence. Must also appear flexible and open minded.

Hollander: Minorities influence by first

Accumulating idiosyncrasy credits (allow you to be liked and trusted)

Holland’s alternative strategy: First conform (to be liked and accepted) then dissent

Majority Influence and Culture

Cultures differ in the extent to which people adhere to social norms.

Collectivist if cultures tend to conform more.

What determines whether a culture becomes individualistic or collectivistic?

Complexity of society: the bigger the population, the less conformity because it allows for multiple group norms

Affluence of the society: creates a desire for personal goals and less likely to conform

Heterogeneity of society: having several languages, religions, etc. reduces conformity

Fast talking, using the word because, and unusual requests can lead to

Compliance

Norm of reciprocity

The powerful norm of reciprocity dictates that we treat others as they have treated us

Sequential Request Strategies: Foot in the Door Technique

Person begins with a very small request; secures agreement; then makes a separate large request

Sequential Request Strategies: Low-balling

Person secures agreement with a request and then increases the size of that request by revealing hidden costs

Sequential Request Strategies: Door in the Face Technique

Person begins with a very large request that will be rejected; then follows up with a more moderate request.

Becomes difficult to refuse because it’s so much smaller. Erases comfort of saying no

Sequential Request Strategies: That’s Not All, Folks!

Person begins with a somewhat inflated request; then immediately (before you can answer)decreases the apparent size of the request by offering a discount or bonus

Which requests shift from small to large

Foot in Door and Low Balling

Which requests shift from large to small

Door in the Face and That’s not at All

How can we resist the trap of compliance techniques?

Be vigilant

Do not feel indebted by the norm of reciprocity

Recognize when these tactics are being used and respond accordingly

Milgram’s Reseaech: Force of Destructive Obedience

Conducted his experiments during the time that Adolph Eichman was being tried for Nazi war crimes.

A series of psychological experiments conducted by Stanley Milgram to study obedience to authority. Participants were instructed to administer electric shocks to a "learner" when they answered questions incorrectly. The study revealed the extent to which individuals would obey orders, even if it caused harm to others. Individuals would go as far as giving the maximum shock, even when hearing the learner scream.

Important factors that influence obedience

Personality

Physical presence

Victims proximity

The experimental procedure

Social influence can also breed

Rebellion and defiance

Social influence depends on three factors

The strength of the source -:strong and confident sources increase obedience. Sources of authority as well

The immediacy of the source to the target in time and space - proximity in time and space, being geographically close or close relationship wise increases social influence

The number of sources

Social impact is divided for

large groups

Collective

An assembly of people engaging in a common activity but having little direct interaction with each other

Why do we join groups?

Social animals. We need others. Help us accomplish what we cannot accomplish as individuals. Offer us the social affiliation that we need. Also offers group identity

Group Roles (Expected Behaviors)

Roles can be informal or formal

-Instrumental: roles that help groups achieve their goals ex: ceo

-Expressive: provide emotional support

Group Norms

Rules of conduct for members of a group

Tight Cultures

Lower tolerance for deviation from norms. Stronger homogenous norms

Loose Cultures

Weaker norms and greater tolerance for deviations from norms

Group Cohesiveness

The forces exerted on a group that push its members closer together. Can be positive or negative

What factors influence cohesiveness?

Commitment to groups task or goals

Attraction to group members (main factor is similarity)

Dangerous or unusual environment

Threat of another group

Social facilitation

when others arouse us. when they improve our performance

How does the presence of others affect our behavior?

Tripletts fishing reel studies

Why does social facilitation occur (Zajoncs Theory)

mere presence (increases arousal) of another person is sufficient enough to produce these effects

Why does social facilitation occur (Evaluation Apprehension Theory)

If others can evaluate your performance, social facilitation occurs. Their presence and the understanding that they can evaluate your performance. In other words, it’s

it’s because I worry that the

others are watching and probably laughing at me, possibly uploading a video of my performance to YouTube.