Psychology Exam 2

sensation

occurs when sensory information is detected by a sensory receptor

transduction

the conversion from sensory stimulus energy to action potential

perception

the organization, interpretation, and experience of stimuli

absolute threshold

the boundary at which a stimulus is detectable 50% of the time

just noticeable difference (JND)

the smallest noticeable difference between stimuli

sensory adaptation

causes us to stop perceiving unchanging stimuli after extended exposure to them

bottom-up processing

sensory information from a stimulus in the environment driving a process

top-down processing

knowledge and expectancy driving a process

inattentional blindness

occurs when we don’t notice something total visible because we’re actively attending to something else

change blindness

occurs when we fail to detect changes to the visual details of a scene because they’re inconsequential to its meaning

signal detection theory

change in stimulus detection as a function of current mental state

light waves

a type of electromagnetic radiation

amplitude

determines brightness; the distance from the center line to the top point of the crest or the bottom point of the trough

wavelength

determines color; length of a wave from one peak to the next

cornea

a transparent covering that refracts light entering the eye

pupil

the opening through which light passes

iris

the colored portion of the eye and dilates or contracts the pupil

lens

curved, transparent structure that provides additional focus for light entering the eye

retina

the lining of the eye that converts light to neural signals

rods

function in low light and are involved with peripheral vision

cones

function in bright light and handle acute detail and color

optic nerve

carries visual information from the retina to the brain

optic chiasm

X-shaped structure that sits just below the brain’s ventral surface; represents the merging of the optic nerves from the two eyes and the separation of information from the two sides of the visual field to the opposite side of the brain

trichromatic theory

there are cones that detect blue-violet, green, and yellow-red

opponent process theory

color is coded in pairs of opposed receptor neurons

afterimage

the continuation of a visual sensation after removal of the stimulus

law of figure-ground

we organize the visual world into figure and ground

law of multistability

we perceive images with multiple interpretations as multiple images in an alternating manner

law of proximity

things that are close together are grouped together

law of similarity

things that are alike are grouped together

law of continuity

our visual system avoids sudden changes in direction

law of closure

perceptions are organized into complete objects rather than a series of parts

depth perception

the ability to perceive the world in three dimensions and perceive distance

monocular depth cues

require one eye

binocular depth cues

require two eyes

linear perspective

parallel lines converge as they recede into the distance

texture gradient

the elements of a uniformly patterned surface grow smaller as the surface recedes into the distance

interposition

an object blocked by another object is farther away

relative height

closer objects are lower in your visual field

binocular disparity

the greater the disparity between the location on each retina where an image is projected, the closer the object

sound waves

changes in air pressure unfolding over time

frequency

determines its pitch

amplitude

determines its volume

complexity

determines its timbre (purity)

sounds moves through the auditory canal then vibrates the eardrum

How does sound move through the outer ear?

ossicles (hammer, anvil, stirrup) move and presses into the oval window

How does sound move through the middle ear?

Fluid in the cochlea moves and hair cells in the cochlea bend, which generates neural impulses

How does sound move through the inner ear?

temporal theory

frequency is coded by the activity level of a sensory neuron; only explains perception of low frequencies

place theory

each frequency stimulates a different part of the basilar membrane; better for explaining perception of high frequencies

pressure, stretch, texture, pattern, vibration, temperature

What are sensory stimuli in the body senses?

inflammatory pain

signals tissue damage

neuropathic pain

results from damage to neurons of the CNS or PNS

gate-control theory of pain

signals arriving from pain receptors can be stopped by pleasurable activation of skin receptors or modulating activity of pain-transmission neurons

airborne molecules

What is the sensory stimuli involved in olfaction?

olfactory receptor cells

How do olfactory stimuli interact with our noses?

molecules in food and beverages

What are the sensory stimuli involved in gustation?

taste receptor cells

How do gustation stimuli interact with our tongues?

salty, sour, bitter, sweet, umami, fatty

What are the six taste sensations?

learning

a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience

associative learning

occurs when an organism makes connections between stimuli that occur together in the environment

habituation

occurs when repeated or prolonged exposure to stimuli results in reduced responding

sensitization

occurs when repeated or prolonged exposure to stimuli results in increased responding

classical conditioning

occurs when the response elicited by one stimulus comes to be elicited by another stimulus after those two stimuli are repeatedly presented together

unconditioned stimulus (US)

naturally elicits a response

unconditioned response (UR)

the response elicited by the US

neutral stimulus (NS)

a stimulus that doesn’t naturally elicit the response elicited by the US

conditioned stimulus (CS)

elicits the same response as the US after it’s presented with the US

conditioned response (CR)

the response elicited by the CS

acquisition

period of initial learning in classical conditioning in which a human or an animal begins to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus will begin to elicit the conditioned response

higher-order conditioning

pairing a new neutral stimulus with the conditioned stimulus

extinction

a decrease in the conditioned response after the CS is no longer presented with the US

spontaneous recovery

the return of a previously extinguished CR following a rest period

stimulus discrimination

ability to respond differently to similar stimuli

stimulus generalization

demonstrating the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus

taste aversion

a learned association between a food (CS) and illness (UR), leading us to become sick (CR) in response to tasting or smelling the food

law of effect

behaviors that are followed by consequences that are satisfying to the organism are more likely to be repeated, and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated

operant conditioning

occurs when a response’s consequences change the response’s frequency

reinforcement

increases a response’s frequency

reinforcer

any stimulus that increases a response’s frequency

primary reinforcers

have innate/biological reinforcing qualities

secondary reinforcers

reinforcing due to their association with a primary reinforcer

positive reinforcement

involves receiving a desirable stimulus after a response is emitted

negative reinforcement

involves removing an undesirable stimulus after a response is emitted

effective reinforcer

any stimulus more desirable than the response being reinforced

punishment

decreases a response’s frequency

punisher

any stimulus that decreases a response’s frequency

positive punishment

involves receiving an undesirable stimulus after a response is emitted

negative punishment

involves removing a desirable stimulus after a response is emitted

effective punisher

any stimulus less desirable than the response being punished

three term contingency

1. When a discriminative stimulus is present
2. A response
3. Produces a reinforcer

discriminative stimulus

indicates that a response will be reinforced

generalization

after learning a discriminative stimulus signals reinforcement, our response to it may generalize to similar stimuli

partial reinforcement

a response is reinforced sometimes

continuous reinforcement

 a response is reinforced every time

ratio schedules

involve reinforcing responding based on the number of times a response is emitted

fixed ratio schedule (FR)

a response is reinforced after a specific number of emissions

variable ratio schedule (VR)

a response is reinforced after a random number of emissions

interval schedules

involve reinforcing responding based on the amount of time since the last reinforcement

fixed interval schedule (FI)

a response is reinforced after a fixed amount of time has passed since the last time it was reinforced

variable interval schedule (VI)

a response is reinforced after a random amount of time has passed since the last time it was reinforced