ACU Hoover Biology 101 Final Exam Review

Scientific Method

A series of steps followed to solve problems including collecting data, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and stating conclusions.

What is the final step in the scientific method?

Communicate results

Which of the following is not true concerning a hypothesis?

It can be proven true

Which of the following studies can infer causation?

Controlled

A scientific theory is:

widely accepted by scientists because multiple datasets support it

Hypothesis vs. Theory

A hypothesis cannot be proven true, a theory can.

Cell Theory

All organisms are made of cells, the cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms, all cells develop from other pre-existing cells.

Nucleus

A part of the cell containing DNA and RNA and responsible for growth and reproduction

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

An endomembrane system covered with ribosomes where many proteins for transport are assembled.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

creates lipids or fat

Mitochondria

Powerhouse of the cell, organelle that is the site of ATP (energy) production

Chloroplast

organelle found in cells of plants and some other organisms that captures the energy from sunlight and converts it into chemical energy

Golgi Apparatus/Body

stack of membranes in the cell that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum

Lysosomes

cell organelle filled with enzymes needed to break down certain materials in the cell

Cell Membrane

the semipermeable membrane surrounding the cytoplasm of a cell, controls which substances can enter or leave the cell

Nuclear Pore

a protein-lined channel in the nuclear envelope that regulates the transportation of molecules between the nucleus and the cytoplasm

Nucleolus

Found inside the nucleus and produces ribosomes

Cytosol

Fluid portion of cytoplasm

Cytoskeleton

network of protein filaments within some cells that helps the cell maintain its shape and is involved in many forms of cell movement

Centriole

structure in an animal cell that helps to organize cell division

Ribosome

Makes proteins

Vesicle

A membrane bound sac that contains materials involved in transport of the cell.

Lysosome

cell organelle filled with digestive enzymes needed to break down certain materials in the cell

DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid, a self-replicating material present in nearly all living organisms as the main constituent of chromosomes. It is the carrier of genetic information.

Proposed origin of mitochondria in eukaryotic cells

endosymbiotic theory- mitochondria are descended from specialized bacteria that somehow survived endocytosis by another species of prokaryote or some other cell type, and became incorporated into the cytoplasm.

DNA vs RNA

RNA contains ribose instead of deoxyribose, RNA contains uracil instead of thymine like DNA, RNA is single-stranded rather than double-stranded like DNA, RNA is smaller than DNA

DNA base pairing

A-T (adenine-thymine)

G-C (guanine-cytosine)

Central Dogma of Biology

DNA codes for mRNA, which codes for proteins

Replication

process of copying DNA prior to cell division

Transcription

the process of producing mRNA from DNA

Translation

the process of converting mRNA to protein

Mitosis

part of eukaryotic cell division during which the cell nucleus divides

Interphase

Cell grows, performs its normal functions, and prepares for division; consists of G1, S, and G2 phases

Metaphase

chromosomes line up in the center of the cell

Prophase

first and longest phase of mitosis, during which the chromosomes become visible and the centrioles separate and take up positions on the opposite sides of the nucleus

Anaphase

the third phase of mitosis, during which the chromosome pairs separate and move toward opposite poles

Cytokenesis

The final stage of the cell cycle, in which the cell's cytoplasm divides, distributing the organelles into each of the two new cells.

Microfilaments

Long, thin fibers that function in the movement and support of the cell

Mendel's Hypothesis

The genes that govern genetic characters are present in two copies in individuals

The two alleles of a gene segregate and enter gametes singly

If different alleles are present in an individual's pair of genes, one allele is dominant over the other

Which of the following is not a part of Mendel's hypothesis?

Genes are carried by DNA, which is the molecule responsible for genetic inheritance

Diploid

(genetics) an organism or cell having two sets of chromosomes or twice the haploid number, 46

Haploid

(genetics) an organism or cell having only one complete set of chromosomes, 23

Genotype

an organism's genetic makeup, or allele combinations.

Phenotype

a term used in genetics to describe a trait which is visible, such as brown hair.

Monohybrid Test Cross

1:1

T/F: A Punnett square with 16 spaces is used for a monohybrid cross.

False

Human genome project

An international collaborative effort to map and sequence the DNA of the entire human genome.

T/F: The human genome project took place between 1983 and 1990.

False

Restriction Enzymes

Enzyme that cuts DNA at a specific sequence of nucleotides

Determining genetic relatedness

cut DNA at a specific place to match up potential parents, gel electrophoresis.

Cancer

result of uncontrolled cell division

Stages of Cancer

I-IV, least widespread-most widespread

Multigenetic disease

mutations must occur in several genes (several abnormal proteins) for cancer to occur

Two characteristics of cancer

1. abnormally high levels of cell division

2.malignant tumors which detach from neighboring cells to invade other tissues.

4 Major abnormalities that lead to the development of cancer

1. abnormal cell proliferation

2. abnormal angiogenesis

3. metastasis

4. abnormal apoptosis

abnormal cell proliferation

results in tumors

abnormal angiogenesis

the process of growing new blood vessels to feed a tumor

metastasis

occurs when tumor cells break free of surrounding tissue and colonize new areas of the body, the spread of cancer cells beyond their original site

abnormal apoptosis

normal cell suicide that occurs when there is DNA damage, cancer cells ignore signals to die

Chemotherapy

a generalized cancer treatment which affects all rapidly dividing cells of the body

Radiation

a more localized cancer treatment, aimed specifically at a tumor

Darwin

English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection (1809-1882)

Five postulates of Darwin's Work

1. Life evolves- species populating earth change over time

2. gradualism- changes occur gradually

3. multiplication of species- the number of species that have lived increase overtime

4. common descent with modification- all species have evolved from a single common ancestor through the modification of ancestral traits

5. natural selection- species change over generations through a natural process of selection based on normal genetic variation

Which of the following is not one of Darwin's five postulates?

Humans evolved from apes

Who else is credited with natural selection?

Alfred Russel Wallace (malaria induced hallucination)

Natural selection

A natural process resulting in the evolution of organisms best adapted to the environment.

Directional selection

one extreme trait is preferable over another, so population moves towards better trait

Stabilizing selection

individuals with extreme values of a trait do not successfully breed and so the population values tend to cluster around the original

Disruptive selection

individuals with values of a trait around the original do not survive and breed, so the population is pushed into two values with extreme values of the trait- rare in nature

Based on Linnaean classification, which of the following lists shows groups in the correct order from largest (most inclusive) to smallest (least inclusive)?

Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

Population Genetic Diversity

caused by reproductive isolating mechanisms, geographic separation, natural selection, and nonrandom mating

Linneaen Classification

the binomial nomenclature system developed by Linnaeus that names organisms using their genus and specific epithet

Cocci

spherical bacteria

Spirrilum

spiral shaped bacteria

Bacillus

rod shaped bacteria

Gram staining

A process by which components of bacterial cell walls are bound to Gram's stain. Depending on the amount of peptidoglycan in their cell walls, bacteria stain differently and are classified as Gram-negative or Gram-positive.

Epidemiology

Branch of medical science concerned with the incidence, distribution, and control of diseases that affect large numbers of people.

Endemic

confined to a particular country or area

Epidemic

a widespread occurrence of an infectious disease in a community at a particular time.

Pandemic

Disease that occurs over a wide geographic area and affects a very high proportion of the population.

Viroid

a plant pathogen with single-stranded RNA molecule that has no surrounding capsids

Prion

small infectious protein

Fungi

A kingdom made up of nongreen, eukaryotic organisms that have no means of movement, reproduce by using spores, and get food by breaking down substances in their surroundings and absorbing the nutrients. Their cell walls are made of chitin and not cellulose, so they are not considered plants.

Plant Anatomy

Chordates

an animal phylum that has a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, and gill slits at some time in its life cycle

Phineas Gage

railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function

Rods

Specialized visual receptors that play a key role in night vision and peripheral vision.

Cones

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

Muscles

smooth, cardiac, skeletal

Diabetes

A condition in which the body is unable to produce enough insulin, the hormone required for the metabolism of sugar

Insulin

A protein hormone synthesized in the pancreas that regulates blood sugar levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose into tissues

Glucagon

A protein hormone secreted by pancreatic endocrine cells that raises blood glucose levels; an antagonistic hormone to insulin

Glucose

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues

Glycogen

Storage form of glucose

Hematopoisesis

formation of blood cells

Circulatory system

Connects the heart and blood vessels.

Lung structures

Excretory structures

Kidneys, urinary bladder, ureters, urethra, skin, lungs

Steroid vs peptide hormones

steroid hormones bind to the cell surface receptors to act as second messengers, peptide hormones bind to the DNA in the nucleus to modify the transcription.

Fetilization

The union of a haploid sperm cell with a haploid egg cell, producing a zygote.