AP Psych Unit 7

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

3 steps of memory

encoding, storage, retrieval

encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

how does a human's memory differ from a computer's memory

humans process many aspects of a problem simultaneously, computers have step-by-step (serial) processing

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision; contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving

what happens to the neurons in your brain every time you learn something new

the brain's neural connections change, forming and strengthening pathways that allow you to interact with and learn from your constantly changing environment

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system; includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

implicit memory

retention independent of conscious recollection; AKA nondeclarative memory

how is implicit memory encoded

automatic processing

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"; AKA declarative memory

how is explicit memory encoded

effortful processing

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

types of sensory memory

iconic and echoic

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

example of iconic memory

participants only record half the letters that flash on the screen

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

example of echoic memory

if you haven't been paying close attention, and your teacher says "what did I just say?" you maybe able to recall the last few words though you were not consciously listening to them

capacity of short-term memory (letters)

about 6

capacity of short-term memory (digits)

about 7

capacity of short-term memory (words)

about 5

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

example of chunking

phone numbers (saying twelve instead of 1-2)

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

example of mnemonics

PEMDAS

hierarchies

way of processing information composed of a few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts + facts

distributed practice

spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information; AKA retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning

2 levels of processing

shallow and deep

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

self-reference effect

tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves

what is the capacity for long-term memory

limitless

frontal lobes' role in memory

lays down new explicit memories (names and events)

hippocampus' role in memory

"save" button for explicit memories

cerebellum's role in memory

forms and stores implicit memories created by classical conditioning

basal ganglia's role in memory

procedural memories

amygdala's role in memory

formation, consolidation, and retrieval of emotional memories

flashbulb memories

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

example of flashbulb memory

where you were on 9/11

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

3 measures of retention

recall, recognition, relearning

recall

the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

recognition

the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

relearning

assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

what is the point to remember about Ebbinghaus' learning experiments

it enforces that rehearsing material after you have learned it helps you remember it faster and sticks longer

retrieval cues

stimuli that aid the recall or recognition of information stored in memory; ex. mood, smell, taste, sound, etc.

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

context-dependent memory

putting yourself back in the context where you experienced something can prime your memory retrieval

mood congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

state-dependent memory

information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, drunk) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

how can forgetting actually be helpful

if we remembered everything, we would be overcome with a "junk heap of memories;" forgetting helps us discard the clutter of useless or out-of-date information

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

what are the possible reasons we could forget something because of encoding failure

much of what we sense we never actually notice and if we do not encode the stimuli, it is not there to be remembered; age can affect encoding as well

what did Ebbinghaus' forgetting curve prove about how much time it takes to forget something

the course of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time

what are the possible reasons we could forget something because of retrieval failure

sometimes important events defy attempts to access them in memory (tip of the tongue phenomenon), where one can just remember the tiniest part of the memory until being provided with context cues, occurs to many of us

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

types of memory construction errors

misinformation effect, source amnesia, deja vu

misimformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined; at the heart of many false memories

deja vu

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before;" cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

is it easy to distinguish real memories from false memories

no; both the misinformation effect and source amnesia happen outside our awareness, so it is nearly impossible to sift suggested ideas out of the larger pool of real memories; false memories can be very persistent, and we more readily remember the gist and not the specifics

in what circumstances have children been shown to be reliable eyewitnesses

when questioned about their experiences in neutral words they understood and when interviewers used less suggestive, more effective techniques, children have been shown to be reliable eyewitnesses. Children were especially accurate when they had not talked with involved adults prior to the interview and when their disclosure was made in a first interview with a neutral person who asked nonleading questions.

what have the APA and other groups agreed upon regarding repressed or constructed memories of abuse

sexual abuse happens; injustice happens; forgetting happens; recovered memories are commonplace; memories of things happening before age 3 are unreliable; memories "recovered" under hypnosis or the influence of drugs are especially unreliable; and memories can be emotionally upsetting (whether real or false)

list several ways that you can improve your memory while you are studying

take breaks, use mnemonics, visualize concepts, etc

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

concepts

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category; matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories

example of a prototype

comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin

creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

example of convergent thinking

multiple choice test

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)

example of divergent thinking

"how many uses can you think of for a brick?"

5 components of creativity

expertise, imaginative thinking, venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, creative environment

expertise

well developed base of knowledge

imaginative thinking skills

provide the ability to see things in novel ways, to recognize patterns, and to make connections

venturesome personality

seeks new experiences, tolerates ambiguity and risk, and perseveres in overcoming obstacles

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

creative environment

sparks, supports, and refines creative ideas

how can one boost his/her creativity

develop expertise, allow time for incubation, set aside time for mind to roam free, experience other cultures

algorithms

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem; contrasts with the usually speedier, but also more error-prone, use of heuristics

example of algorithms

a recipe

heuristics

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgment and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier, but more error-prone than algorithms

example of heuristics

grouping letters to unscramble a word

insight

a sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

summary of Kohler's experiment

chimpanzees also display insight (jumped up like "aha!" when he realized he could use the shorter stick to pull in the longer stick to then use to get the food)