Bio - Exam 1

Biological Organization (smallest to largest)

* Molecules
* Organelles
* Cells
* Tissues
* Organs
* Organisms
* Populations
* Communities
* Ecosystems
* Biosphere

Cells

smallest unit of life

Populations

several of the __same__ organism living in same area

Emergent properties

new function resulting from arrangement and interaction of parts (ex. heart combined with veins and arteries = cariovascular system)

eukaryotic

multi-celled organism; membrane enclosed organelles (like a nucleus)

prokaryotic

one-celled organisms; simple; microbes; membrane on outside but none on inside (ex. no nucleus or organelles)

genes

units of inheritance (what you pass down)

Gene expression

DNA -- RNA -- proteins

Genome

entire set of all your genes

Genomics

studying genome

Proteome

all of your proteins

Proteomics

study of proteome

Bioinformatics

using a computer to study genome, genomics, proteome, proteomics (process large amount of data rapidly)

feedback regulation

product of a process (output) that regulates that very process; negative - tells you to stop process; positive - tells you to keep going

Domains of Life (3)

* Bacteria (prokaryotes)
* Archaea (prokaryotes)
* Eukarya (eukaryotes)

Eukarya kingdoms (subcategories)

* Plants - photosynthesis
* Animals - eat food
* Fungi - absorb nutrients
* Protists - everything else, usually single-celled & live in water

Levels of Taxonomy (broadest to most specific)

1. Domain
2. Kingdom
3. Phylum
4. Class
5. Order
6. Family
7. Genus
8. Species

Darwin’s Observations

1. Individuals in a population seem to look a little different and many traits are inheritable
2. More offspring are produced than can actually survive; competition is inevitable for resources, safety, etc.
3. Species seem to suit their environment

Darwin’s Conclusions

1. Individuals with traits best for environment will survive and reproduce
2. Over time, individuals with advantageous traits will reproduce and pass them on (more individual with it show up over time)

Types of data

* Qualitative data - quality you can’t count (descriptors)
* Quantitative data - can count or measure it in some way (put in a graph/chart)

Inductive reasoning

collecting data & interpreting what it means (supports or doesn’t support hypothesis)

Types of variables

1. Independent variable - what scientists/researchers change


1. Dependent variable - depends on independent variable (data we collect)

Theory

in science, applies to huge, overarching idea - have massive amount of evidence to support it as fact

element

something that retains unique properties (periodic table) - make up matter

compound

two or more elements put together - have characteristics (emergent properties) different from those of its elements

96% of living matter

Hydrogen, Oxygen, Carbon, Nitrogen (HONC)

4% of living matter

Calcium, Phosphorus, Potassium, Sulfur

trace elements

required by an organism in only minute quantities

atom

smallest unit of matter that still retains properties of element

dalton

(atomic mass unit) weight of neutron and proton mass

atomic mass

number at bottom of periodic table square (mass = protons + neutrons)

atomic number

number at top left of periodic table square = number of protons in nucleus; also correlates to number of electrons and neutrons

mass number

protons + neutrons

isotope

number of neutrons in an element differs from number of protons

valence shell

outermost electron shell of an element

valence electrons

amount of electrons in outermost shell (maxes out at 8)

Covalent bond

__***sharing***__ of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms

* Sulfur, Phosphorus, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon, Hydrogen (SPONCH) = main covalent bonders

valence

ability to bond with another element (how many more electrons it needs to get to max of outer shell)

Nonpolar covalent bond

sharing electrons equally

Polar (covalent) bond

unequal sharing of a pair of electrons

Ionic bond

transfer electrons between elements; main ones that do this are columns 1, 2, 7 (17) (except hydrogen)

* cation - positive charge after transfer (more protons than electrons)
* anion - negative charge after transfer (more electrons than protons)

Ionic compounds

salts or electrolytes

Hydrogen bond

* easy to break; partial positive/negative bond can pull in another partial bond
* anything polar ___________ bonds (dissolves in water); nonpolar doesn’t mix with water
* single bond breaks all the time; collectively very strong

Van der Waals Interactions

two polar things, attracted __and__ repelled at the same time (drawn together but never touch)

Chemical reactions

making and breaking bonds

Reactants

what we start with in a chemical reaction

Products

what we end with (chemical reactions)

Cohesion

water sticking to water through hydrogen bonding (working together); allows them to move water & create surface tension

Adhesion

water sticking to __anything else__ (usually a surface)

Kinetic energy

energy of motion, causes thermal energy (heat)c

calorie

amount of energy needed to raise temperature of one gallon of water by 1 degree Celsius

Solution

mixing stuff in water

solute

thing getting dissolved/mixed in waters

solvent

water - doing the dissolving in a solution

Hydration shell

sphere of water molecules surrounding an ionic compound when it’s dissolved in water

hydrophobic

water fearing; won’t mix with water; nonpolar

hydrophilic

water loving; mix with water; polar

Acid

high concentration of hydrogen ions (not enough hydroxides -OH)

Base

high concentration of hydroxide ions; low hydrogen concentration (0-6)

pH

measure of how much hydrogen ions are in a solution (8-14)

pH 7

ph balance (water)

buffers

resist change in pH - keep item at level needed

ocean acidification

when ocean absorbs CO2; CO2 in seawater forms carbonic acid

organic

contains carbon; anything that is or was alive has carbon in it

hydrocarbons

simplest structure of carbon; hydrogen and carbon molecules - make up organic things

3 Types of Isomers

1. Structural isomers
2. Cis-trans isomers
3. Enantiomers

Structural isomers

same formula, different shape

Cis-trans isomers

same formula centered around double-bond that can be split in half; cis = x on same side, trans = x on opposite sides

Enantiomers

same formula; mirror images of each other (used when creating drugs/generic versions of drugs)

functional groups

attachments to molecules that give them chemical reactions; allows them to have function they have

Hydroxyl

\-OH; alcohols; polar & mixes with waterC

Carbonyl

O

||

\-C- ; can be sandwiched in middle; ketones and aldehydes

Carboxyl

O

||

\-C-OH; acids

Amine/Amino

NH2; bases

Sulfhydryl

\-SH; stabilizes proteins

Methyl

\-CH3; activates things

Phosphate

\-phosphorus (P) surrounded by oxygen; ENERGY!!!!

Macromolecules

big molecules; often bunch of repeated units of same thingm

monomer

one unit

polymer

whole string (ex. carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids)

enzymes

speed up chemical reactionsD

Dehydration reaction

removing water to build polymers

Hydrolysis reaction

adds water to break down polymers, then break water to add to end of new chains

glucose

most common monosaccharides

disaccharide

two sugars

oligosaccharide

3-10 sugars (aka a few)

Polysaccharides

1. Starch - stored in plants
2. Glycogen - stored in animals
3. Cellulose - in plant cell walls
4. Chitin - bugs & mushrooms (makes up exoskeleton)

Saturated fats

single bond, straight leg/tail of fatty acid; solid at room temp, mostly animal sources, unhealthy

Unsaturated fats

double bonds, kicks out leg/tail of fatty acid; liquid at room temp, mostly plant & fish, healthy

Pyrimidines

CUT the py

Purines

side by side; AG (pure as gold)

Primary level of protein structure

chain of amino acids; no function

Secondary level of protein structure

makes two shapes - alpha helix, beta-pleated sheets; no function

Tertiary level of protein structure

folded protein, which gives stabilization (1st level that is functioning protein)Q

Quaternary level of protein structure

two or more tertiaries

denatured

break bonds in tertiary or quaternary level; protein loses structure (can’t put it back)

Carbohydrates

* Monomer - monosaccharide (glucose)
* Polymer - starch, cellulose, chitin, glycogen
* Linkage - glycosidic linkage
* Function - energy for right now
* Example - sugar, bread

Lipids

* Monomer - glycerol & fatty acids
* Polymer - (no true polymer) fats, membranes (phospholipids), steroids
* Linkage - ester linkage
* Function - stored energy
* Example - butter, fish, oil

Nucleic Acids

* Monomer - nucleotides
* Polymer - DNA, RNA
* Linkage - Phosphdiester linkage
* Function - genetic information
* Example - any food, any living thing

Proteins

Monomer - amino acids

Polymer - polypeptides

Linkage - peptide bond

Function - cellular work

Example - eggs, meat