BIOL422 (copy)

radiative forcing

difference between energy entering the atmospher and exiting as infrared (heat)

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humans change level of radiative forcing by various means

* adding greenhouse gasses and aerosols to the atmosphere
* changing the reflectivity of earths surface

how can organisms react to climate change?

* alter geographic distribution
* adjust to new conditions
* go extinct

predicting response to climate change

* define CO2 concentration scenarios
* use global climate model to forecast future climate variables
* future emission levels are unknown
* use various models (DVM, CEM) to define climate niches
* do not consider capacity to adapt to changing conditions
* compare present distribution to future habitat with suitable climate niche

documented effects of climate change

* bramble cay melomys
* first extinction clearly linked to climate change
* local extinctions
* 48 species of mexican spiny lizard due to temperatures above physiological limit
* american pika populations in US great Basin due to temperature extremes
* range shifts
* altered phenologies
* biome shifts

migratory birds convention act

* established in 1917 between canada and US to protect migratory waterfowl and shorebirds from unregulated hunting
* allows for establishment of sanctuaries
* ex. Mont Saint-Hilaire

Species at Risk Act (SARA)

* passed in 2002
* designed to meet canadas commitment to the UN convention on Biological Diversity
* specifically, the act will
* establish the committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) as an independent body of experts responsible for assessing and identifying species at risk
* require that best available knoweldge be used to define long and short- term objectives in a recovery strategy and action plan
* create prohibitions to protect listed threatened and endangered species and their critical habitats
* create public registry to assist in making documents under the Act more accessible to the public
* be consistent with Aboriginal and treaty rights and respect the authority of other federal ministers and provincial governments

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COSEWIC: functions

* asses status of each wildlife species considered to be at risk
* determine when wildlife species are to be assessed, with priority given to those more likely to become extinct
* conduct new assessments, reclassify and declassify
* develop and periodically review criteria for assessing status
* provide advice to the minister and canadian endangered species conservation council

COSEWIC: who serves?

* composed of members appointed by the minister after consultation with the canadian endangered species conservation council
* each member must have expertise drawn from discipline such as conservation biology, population dynamics, taxonomy, systematics or genetics or from community knoweledge of aboriginals

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COSEWIC: contents

* species description/significance
* distribution
* habitat
* general biology
* designatable units (DUs)
* population size/trends
* threats/limiting factors
* protection/status/ranks

convention on international trade in endangered species (CITES)

* international treaty established to control international trade in endangered species (covers live animals/plants and derivatives
* species covered can only be traded internationally under permit
* all regulated species are included in one of three appendices

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CITES appendix I

* taxa threatened with extinction
* commercial trade not permitted
* noncommercial trade allowed only under valid import and export permits

CITES appendix II

* includes taxa that might become threatened with extinction if trading not regulated
* trade requires export permit from exporting party

CITES appendix III

* includes species protected in at least one country and that party has requested assistance in controlling trade
* trade requires export permit

convention on biological diversity

* three main goals
* conservation of biodiversity
* sustainable use of components of biodiversity
* equitable sharing of benefits of genetic resources (especially for commercial use)
* recognizes biodiversity includes ecosystems and genetic resources in addition to species
* addresses biosafety concerns about biotechnology
* conference of the parties held in montreal in december

Ramsar convention on wetlands

* signed in 1971 in ramsar, iran
* mission is “the conservation and wise use of all wetlands through local and national actions and international cooperation”
* sites include long point, point peleem minesing wetlands

why species level conservation?

* species (and populations) is the natural default level of conservation focus
* much conservation legislation is focused on species, e.g., SARA, ESA, CITIES, etc.
* many conservation activities are aimed at species/populations, e.g. captive breeding/reintroducing projects, population viability analysis (PVA), etc.
* species is the indispensable biological unit

“crisis discipline”

conservation biology sometimes characterized as “crisis discipline”

* many crises involve preventing extinction of small populations

demographic stochasticity

* random variation in demographic variables (e.g., birth rate, mortality rate, sex ratio) creates much greater extinction risk in small populations than in large populations
* e.g.an organism has probability of annual survival of 0.5. A population of 3 individuals has a probability of going extinct in any year of 0.5^3=0.125
* extinction probability of population of 100 individuals is 0.5^100 (very small number)

environmental stochasticity

random variation in biotic/abiotic ocnditions that affect birth and mortality rates will have greater impact on small populations compared to larger populations

* ex. prezwalskis horse (extinct in wild since 1960’s)

heath hen extinction -- chain of stochastic factors

* 800 birds survived in 1915
* major fire destroyed much remaining habitat and nests in 1916 (catastrophic environmental stochasity)
* severe winters and goshawk predation further supressed population to fewer than 100 birds (environmental stochasity)
* in the 1920s, genetic drift resulted in increased susceptibility to blackhead disease and sterility (genetic stochasity)
* by 1927 only 12 birds remained, only 2 females (demographic stochasity)
* extinct by 1932

loss of genetic variation -- genetic drift

* the basis of genetic variation is the presence , within and between populations, of different forms of the same genes (i.e. alleles)
* ultimately, the ability of populations to adapt to changing conditions depends on the presence of genetic variation
* when the population size is reduced, alleles (especially rare alleles) tend to be eliminated from the gene pool due to genetic drift
* ex. A rare allele has a frequency of 0.05. If the population \n consists of 1000 individuals, there are 100 copies of the allele. It will \n likely remain in the population for many generations. If the population \n consists of only 10 individuals, there is only 1 copy of the allele. There \n is a much higher probability of the allele disappearing in any future \n generation.

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loss of genetic variation -- Inbreeding

* inbreeding is mating between individuals with genotypes that are more similar to eachother than genotypes of selected mates. typically involves mating of related individuals
* related individuals are more likely to mate in small populations than in large populations
* results sin decreased heterozygosity

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inbreeding depression

* results when individuals are homozygous for deleterious alleles as a result of inbreeding
* inbreeding results in reduced fitness due to increased mortality, fewer offspring, offspring with reduced fertility, and generally weaker offspringe

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effective population size

* genetic management of small populations often aims to maintain (or restore) genetic diversity in the face of potential genetic drift and/or inbreeding
* actions such as enhancing natural gene flow of translocations can be informed by measures such as effective population size (Ne)
* Ne can be thought of as the number of breeding individuals in a population that contributes genes to the succeeding generation (simplified)
* Ne is usually considerably smaller than the census population size and reflects historical population dynamics

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how does Ne reflect genetic diversity through time?

sewall wright showed that Ne affects heterozygosity (H) in successive generations according to the equation

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H= 1 - 1/2Ne

unequal sex ratio affects Ne

Ne is also affected by sex ratio according to the equation

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* where Nm and Nf are the numbers of breeding males and females, respectively

variance is reproductive output affects Ne

* some organisms have a higly variable reproductive output (e.g. grey wolves, some fishes, some annual plants)
* the greater the variance, the more Ne is depressed

population fluctuations/bottlenecks affect Ne

* some species experience fluctions in population size. such fluctuations reduce Ne which can be estimated as the harmonic mean of population size over the particular time period
* ex. a population of butterflies is counted over 5 successive years and found to contain 10, 20, 100, 20, and 10 individuals. Ne is estimated as follows -- image

extinction vortices

as population decreases in size, it’s vulnerability to demographic stochasticity, environmental stochasticity, and genetic factors increases

* these factors affect mortality, reproductive success, etc. pulling the species toward extinction
* ex. heath hen

extinction vortex case study: Tuatara

* tuatara is the sole survivor of an ancient reptile lineage that was widespread during the Mesozoic period. has several unusual anatomical features and high conservation value
* survives only on a number of predator free islands in New Zealand
* small population on North Brother Island in extinction vortex?
* see Grayson et al. 2014

what is a minimum viable population?

A minimum viable population for any given species in any given habitat is the smallest isolated population having a 99% chance of remaining extant for 1000 years despite he foreseeable effects of demographic, environmental, and genetic stochasticity and natural catastrophes.

how is minimum viable population size estimated?

need to know 2 things:


1. detailed demographic information about the species populations, and
2. information about its environment

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Analyses done for >200 species indicate MVP of 3000 – 5000 individuals. For species with highly variable population sizes, MVP of at. least 10,000 individuals in advisable. In general, the larger the population, the longer it is likely to persist.

minimum dynamic area

* MDA is the amount of suitable habitat required to support a minimum viable population of organisms
* MDA is estimated by determining the home range size of individuals of the species in question and extrapolating to the number of individuals in the minimum viable population
* many small african mammals require reserves of 100-1000 km^2. large carnivores such as lions require 10,000km^2

population viability analysis

* PVA used to estimate minium viable population size and minimum dynamic area
* PVA is analogous to a risk assessment; its goal is to estimate the probability that a population will go extinct at some point in the future
* PVA has 2 requirements
* an estimate of current population size, and
* a model for estimating how the population will change over time

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example

* imagine a population of 100 animals whose basic demographic parameteres have been studied for the past 30 years
* population growth rate has been estimated each year as
* λ= Nt+1 / Nt where Nt is population size in any year and Nt+1 is population size the next year.
* We can now plot a distribution of estimates of λ, which will assume to be normal. \n
* We will use a simple geometric population growth model to predict population size each year for 50 years:
* Nt+1 = λ Nt \n
* After 50 years, we will evaluate whether the remaining population is viable.

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* Begin modeling by multiplying the initial population size (100) by a randomly chosen value of λ from the distribution generated from 30 years of monitoring data (this accounts for stochasticity). If the randomly chosen value of λ is 1.1, our estimate of population size after 1 year is 110 animals (i.e. 100 x 1.1). Repeating the process for year 2, we multiply the new population size by another randomly chosen estimate of λ (say 0.9). Our new population size is 110 x 0.9 = 99. This is \n repeated 50 times to generate our estimate of population size after 50 years. Are there any animals left after 50 years? Is this a viable population? \n
* This process is repeated many times (often thousands of times). If we repeat 1000 times, we generate 1000 simulations of the population size after 50 years which are used to estimate the probability of extinction. If the population goes to zero (extinction) in 100 simulations, we conclude the probability of population extinction is 10 percent over 50 years (or the probability of population persistence is 90 percent over 50 years).

what is international union for conservation of nature (IUCN)?

* international NGO working on nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources
* involved in research, field projects, advocacy, sustainable development and education
* mission is to influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable

IUCN Organizational Structure

* secretariat: headquarters in switzerland, offices in 50 countries, >900 staff
* membership: gov’t agencies, other NGO’s (national and international), indigineous peoples organizations; some 1400 members
* commissions: include volunteer experts from many disciplines
* education and communication
* environmental, economic, and social policy
* environmental law
* ecosystem management
* species survival commission
* protected areas
* climate crisis

community and ecosystem conservation: how does conservation at this level contrast with species-level conservation?

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* species are a natural level of organization for most people to understand
* species can be “marketed”
* current institutions are organized around species (SARA/COSEWIC, ESA in USA, CITES, IUCN, etc.)
* tools exist for species level conservation (PVA, traditional *ex situ* approaches)

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But…

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* efforts to conserve communities/ecosystems can be more effective and less costly
* primary tool for community/ecosystem conservation is the portected area
* indirect benefits of biodiversity and ecosystem services are gaining wider understanding and support

what are we ultimately trying to protect? Protected Areas

* a protected area is a “clearly defined geographical space that is recognized, dedicated, and managed to achieve long-term conservation of nature and its associated ecosystem services”
* requires restraint and incurs costs (but also repays dividends)

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not a new concept

* sacred forests in china set aside more than 1000 years ago and people were instructed to maintain the forests for “many generations”
* royal forests were established in Great Britain following the Norman conquest during the 11th century and in asia
* salmon streams in the skeena and nass basins (BC) were protected by ancient traditions governing harvest practices

national parks

* national parks system first established in US by Act of Congress passed in 1872 (Yellowstone NP created)
* national parks established in Australia, Canada, and elsewhere soon after

IUCN Protected Area Designations - Category Ia & Ib

(categories Ia and Ib) strict nature reserves and wilderness areas

* most stringently protected, large natural areas
* goal is to protect evolutionary and ecosystem processes
* often managed for scientific research and environmental monitoring
* little or no human intervention or infrastructure
* no resource extraction and minimal recreation
* indigineous people can maintain their lifestyle and traditional ecosystem management

IUCN Protected Area Designations - Category II

National Park

* usually large areas, but not always
* resource extraction usually prohibited
* management often based on balancing multiple objects (e.g. recreation and conservation)

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IUCN Protected Area Designations - Category III

Natural monuments

* protect natural geological features (e.g., mountains, caves, etc.) or natural cultural sites (e.g. cave dwellings, sacred groves, etc.)
* usually small in area but contribute to conservation of local biodiversity (e.g. giant sequoia national monument)

IUCN Protected Area Designations - Category IV

Habitat/Species Management Area

* protect or restore biodiversity of international, national, or local importance
* sites require management/intervention to maintain biodiversity value
* often sites of environmental monitoring and scientific research (e.g., baiyer river sanctuary, papua new guinea)

IUCN Protected Area Designations - Category V

protected landscapes/seascape

* protects whole communities/ecosystems across an entire body of land or sea
* generally large areas
* accomodate multiple uses and allows some development and human infrastructure
* management often focused on traditional use (e.g. grazing, culture)

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IUCN Protected Area Designations - Category VI

Managed resource protected area

* much of the landscape is natural, but allows sustainable harvesting and other natural resources
* low intensity human activity considered compatible with conservation
* usually large areas (e.g. Ngorongoro Crater Conservation Area)

protected areas: progress 2010-2020

* convention on biological diversity came into force in December 1993, following the earth summit in Rio in 1992
* at COP 10 (held in Japan), global targets were set for establishing protected areas:
* 17% of terrestrial and inland water habitat
* 10% of coastal and offshore marine areas
* especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem services
* protected areas of 2020
* \~250,000 protected areas, but marine protected areas are growing in number

how are protected areas selected?

* a few protected areas are established for the benefit of particular species
* e.g. Wood Buffalo NP
* protection of biodiversity hotspots
* 44% of vascular plants and 35% of vertebrates occupy 25 hotspots (1.4% of earths land mass) - Meyers et al. 2020
* >50% of vascular plants and 42% of terrestrial vertebrates occupy 34 hotspots (2.3% of earths land mass) - Mittermeier et al. 2011
* hotspot concept has been applied to taxonomic groups (eg. sharks and birds) and is amendable to cost analysis
* hotspot approach does not consider the value of lower density areas with high ecological importance
* e.g. seagrass beds
* ecoregions
* units of land containing distinct assemblages of natural communities and species, with boundaries that approximate the original extent of natural communities prior to major land use change\]
* WWF scientists have classified the worlds land base into 867 ecoregions
* comparable units have been described for marine ecoregions
* boundaries correspond with natural range limits for many species and their ecosystems
* COSEWIC uses Canadian ecoregions in deliberations related to designatable units
* ecoregion approach to protected areas aims to conserve biodiversity in all types of ecosystems, not just the most biodiverse
* several major conservation organizations have adopted this approach to protected areas (e.g., WWF, The Nature Conservancy)
* political boundaries
* species ranges, biodiversity hotspots, and ecoregions often cross political boundaries (national and international). Managing protected areas that cross political boundaries can be complicated by disaggreements based on different views held by stakeholders on opposite sides of such borders
* restricting protected areas to one side of political boundaries can reduce or eliminate such disagreements
* planning and management of protected areas within political boundaries can be simpler, however the natural world often does not recognize such boundaries
* ex.
* serengeti/Massai Mara
* Waterton lakes/glacier NP
* ecosystem services
* protected areas are sometimes established to preserve ecosystem services
* areas of cultural importance
* usually set up under support from (united nations educational, scientific, and cultural organization) as either world heritage sites or biosphere reserves
* *world biosphere reserves*
* considered to be “learning places” for sustainability using interdisciplinary approaches to balance development with environmental integrity
* ex. niagra escarpment
* *world heritage sites*
* significant cultural, historic, natural, or scientific landmarks
* ex. galapagos islands

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Can we assume that protected areas are effective in conserving biodiversity and ecosystem function? What do the data say?

habitat protection

* based on remote sensing, habitat loss inside PAs on average was 5.4x less compared to outside PAs
* forest cover in Atlantic coastal region of south america was much greater inside PAs compared to outside PAs
* some studies did not report significant reduction of habitat loss in terrestrial PAs
* coral cover increases notes in caribbean and indopacific marine PAs

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direct measures of biodiversity

* greater in PAs compared to outside PAs
* wildlife population size
* species richness
* measures of diversity
* higher fish biomass

PAs and people

* PAs have the potential to increase the quality of lide of people living close by and they can have significant economic benefits -- in the US alone, PAs generate/support:
* more than 250 million visitors annully in the US alone
* more than $1trillion in economic activity
* more than 9 million jobs
* similar arguments can be applied to developing nations -- households living in close proximity versus distant from PAs (with tourism)
* 17% higher wealth levels
* 10% lower likelihood of living in poverty
* greater food security and measurable health benefits

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can also cause hardships for some people

* sometimes people are displaced
* known as conservation regugess
* usually inadequately compensated

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public backlash against PAs has resulted in many being downsized, degraded, even eliminated -- sometimes industrial insterests push for access to PAs (e.g. logging, mining, oil, and gas)

Protected areas and people: Kouchibouguac National Park

* established in 1969
* land expropriated; 1200 ppl forced to leave
* struggle continued for 40 years
* classic top-down strong arm approach - recipe for failure

predictors of PA success

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PAs have a mixed history of success. what factors are associated with success/failures of PAs?

* a call for protected area management effectiveness (PAME) assessment was made at the 2010 COP of the convention on biological diversity
* numerous approaches have been developed most, have the following features in common
* analyze threats to PA
* identify most urgent management issues
* assess PA performance
* suggest corrective steps for improvement
* global database of PAME assessments have been compiled

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a review of PAME assessments for 1961 PAs found the most important threats

* unsustainable/illegal hunting
* disturbance from recreational activities
* modification of natural systems by fire and fire suppression

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several studies have identified robust enforcement of regulations as the most important correlates of success in both terrestrial and marine PAs - successful enforcement relies on adequate funding

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* effective enforcement is necessary for success of PAs, but not sufficient
* in addition, buy in is required for various groups (e.g. local communities, politicians, businessess)
* stakeholder engagement and support was found to be critical to success of MPAs; similarly absence of such support was a strong predictor of failure.

stakeholder involvement promotes success by:

* creating mechanism to discuss and reconcile different interests
* encourage clear goals that are shaded and widely understood
* encourage transparency and provide opportunity to have input into decision making
* give stakeholders a vested interest in success

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* governments, NGOs, and others working to establish PAs are therefore moving away from heavy handed, top down approaches in favour of more collaborative and inclusive approach
* however, one additional ingredient required for success i.e. adequate training for PA managers in human dimensions of resource management
* balancing competing interests requires skills such as structured decision making, cost-benefit analysis, and basic “people skills”

predictors of PA success: integrated conservation and development

* studies are showing that increasing levels of PA protection (i.e. IUCN PA categories) do not achieve greater success than multi-use categories
* emerging evidence supporting the idea that strict regulation of PAs does not lead to better conservation outcomes challenges widely held views, specifically that we can have socioeconomic development or conservation, but not both
* development that is compatible with conservation is possible and fosters connection between people and the land they occupy. what is the right balance?

what is landscape?

A landscape is “a large geographic region that spans multiple biological communities and ecosystems and that includes different habitat types” \n (Cardinale et al. 2020). \n

why are landscapes important for conservation?

* all communities/ecosystems exist within landscapes
* protected areas are strongly affected by the events in surrounding areas
* many species are highly mobile and move long distances across habitats
* conservation needs to be mindful of the needs of people as well as other components of biodiversity

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* the main conservation unit at the community/ecosystem level is the protected area
* the main conservation unit at the landscape level is the *network of protected areas*
* a well connected network of PAs that are managed collectively is one of the best ways to ensure successful conservation of biodiversity at all levels

establishing new protected areas

* establishing and maintaining PAs has a checkered past around the world
* previously, national and local governments have been the main players (e.g. national parks, wilderness areas, biological reserves, etc.)
* more recently others have become involved (e.g., land trusts, business, individuals)

land trusts

* usually private, non-profit organization involved in protection of land for conservation
* rapidly growing sector in the conservation space
* as of 2020, 109,414km^2 of land is controlled in \~158,000 conservation easements in the US.
* this is more land than is protected by the US national park system
* land trusts either purchase land outright, accept donations, or enter into stewardship agreements with land owners
* nature conservancy of canada stewards 2 million hectares directly (and with partners) and 400,000 hectares are managed by NCC
* land trusts are widely used in many other countries in addition to Canada and the US

criteria for selection/prioritization of PAs

* larger
* high interior:edge ratio
* unique community or ecosystem
* facing immediate threat
* ecosystem completely protected
* buffer zones present
* coupled natural-human system

criteria for selection/prioritization of protected area networks

* more number of area
* closer proximity
* joined by corridors or stepping stones
* more habitat types
* areas managed collectively

how do we determine if the PAs in a network are adequate?

* one first step is often a GAP ANALYSIS
* an assessment of how close an existing network of PAs comes to meeting conservation and/or social goals
* GIS is often used in gap analysis

connecting PAs into networks

* corridors and stepping stones
* habitat corridors
* pronghorn antelope

conservation outside PAs

* a large proportion of global diversity, including species-at-risk, exists outside of areas protected for conservation
* PAs represent a small proportion of global wildlife habitat; that is not expected to change anytime soon
* unprotected areas need to be included in biodiversity management plans
* many species at risk live outside PAs
* e.g., florida panther

conservation on agricultural lands

* agriculture varies in intensity; low intensity farming is much more conservation-friendly because of:
* fewer pesticide and chemical inputs
* less use of heavy equipment
* some space can support natural plant species, e.g., hedgerows, along riparian zones (less soil erosion and nutrient loss)
* less soil tillage

ecosystem-based management

* ecosystem based management (EBM) is a broadly based approach to conservation at the landscape scale
* EBM is complicated by 2 factors that are less important for conservation at smaller scales:


1. Landscapes often span multiple jurisdictions and include stakeholders with very different interests and agendas, and
2. more uncertainty and unpredictability operate at the landscape scale compared to smaller scales

ecosystem based management: core features

1. EBM is place based - geographic management units are defined by ecological criteria
2. EBM aims to achieve environmental, social, and economic sustainability
3. interactions between different aspects of human activity is key to EMB
4. EBM works to optimize tradeoffs in management of natural resources among different interests
5. EBM is inclusive and seeks participation by all stakeholders
6. EBM is adaptive and relies on monitoring and modelling when making course corrections

adaptive management

EBM example: National Ocanic and Atmospheric Administration

current practice

* individual species
* individual human activities evaluated
* management by individual sectors
* narrowly focused scientific monitoring programs
* observations serving a single use and purpose

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the goal:

* multiple species
* humans integral part of ecosystem
* multi-sector management
* adaptive management based on scientific monitoring
* shared and standardized observations

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NOAA manages fisheries in 6 areas

* alaska
* west coast
* tropical pacific
* gulf of mexico
* caribbean
* atlantic seaboard

EBM example: Namibia

* 86 conservancies registered
* national parks, tourism, concessions, community conservancies, and private land under conservation management make up 45.6% of the land area of namibia
* conservancies are locally managed, each has a constitiution and an elected managment committee
* conservancies work to protect the wildlife populations and to generate revenue from sustainable use of the natural resources
* wildlife guards are employed to control illegal harvest of animals and timber
* economic benefits resulting from wildlife conservation accrue to residents of conservancy

wildlife population trends

* elephant population has increased from 7000-23, 600
* black rhinoceros has increased from \~65 animals to become the worlds largest free ranging population (precise numbers not released)
* springbok, gemsbok, and mountain zebra populations increase 10x between 1982 and early 2000s
* lion populations have increased

local benefits

* conservancies can form joint ventures with tourism operators and receive a proportion of gross earnings.
* revenue can be used to hire game guards and other staff
* game can be harvested sustainably and distributed to community members
* trophy hunting quotas can be granted subject to population and PVA results

habitat restoration

* the purposeful rehabilitation of an area to recreate a functioning ecosystem

ecological restoration

the process of transforming a degraded ecosystem to have greater structure and functional complexity

restoration ecology

is the scientific study of ecological restoration

what is habitat restoration? more definitions

* decisions must be made about the best course of action; take no action, partially restore it, or restore it to its original state
* ‘re-creation’
* reconstruction of an ecosystem that is virtually destroyed (e.g. mine site)
* ‘reclamation’
* restoration of a severely degraded ecosystem (e.g., schoolground)
* ‘rehabilitation’
* restoration of some of the original elements of structure or function

habitat rehabilitation

* enhanced but not restored habitat
* ecosystem permanently altered, but seeks to return a self-sustaining native community that is as close to the original as possible
* prioritizes long-term stability of soil, land forms, and hydrology as well as repairment of the capacity of ecosystems to provide habitat services for people

habitat replacement

* creation of a community that was not originally present
* may be used in ‘compensatory mitigation’ and ‘biodiversity offsets’
* ex. ‘nest boxes’ for barn swallows (city of missisauga)

habitat reconciliation

* restoration of biodiversity within urban area (e.g., adopt-a-pond; citizen science program aimed at protecting wetland species and habitats)

habitat resurrection

* recreation of an extinct ecosystem using surrogate species
* ebony trees were seed-dispersal limited after extinction of all native, large bodied animals

habitat recovery

* allowing an ecosystem to restore itself (e.g., scallops near isle of man)
* stopped fishing in 1990s- scallops increase in abundance and benthos became more heterogenous
* distinction between active restoration and passive recovery can be blurry, especially when recovery takes significant human input like dam removal

habitat restoration - where to start?

* recovery is unlikely if the damaging agent is still present
* natural recovery also unlikely if original communities have been eliminated or have becomee dominated by invasive species
* or if physical environment has been severly altered (soil erosion, soil compaction, contamination)
* if sites are properly prepared and native species are reintroduced, native communities can possibly be restored
* often the goal of restoration efforts is to create ecosystems comparable in function and composition to existing **reference sites**
* reference sites act as a control and provide quantitative goals to measure success
* can also use historic photographs and journals to re-create historic landscape or assemblage
* can be limited when there is a lack of data on historical ecosystems
* have to be adaptive - achieving reference site levels may not be possible where the environment has been altered by humans
* because restoration efforts need to be customized for individual sites, can experimentally test different restoration methods
* ex. experiment at friendship marsh in tijuana estuary, california

steps in successful restoration?

a case study - reintroduction of the mottled duskywing

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I. identify values

* conservation, education, and visitor experience goals?
* engage partners, stakeholders, and communities (continously through the project, consultation and collaboration)
* consider a protected areas national or regional ecological, socio-cultural, visitation, economic and public education context and purpose
* implement respect for all cultural and natural heritage values

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* pinery provincial park - first proposed reintroduction site
* the park was occupied by mottled duskywing until the 1990s
* the pinery land base is one of the largest remaining, intact coastal dune systems on the great lakes
* had to consider how restoration might impact visitors to the park
* includes over 50 species that are considered rare
* significant archeological sites that need to be protected by zoning

a case study - reintroduction of the mottled duskywing

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2. define problem

* research conducted on mottled duskywing ecology
* loss of ‘tallgrass communities’ - one of the most endangered habitats, in this case oak savanna habitat
* monoculture pine plantation, fire suppression, extensive deer browsing
* compare to more ideal population maintained by indigenous communities

**a case study - reintroduction of the mottled duskywing**

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3. develop restoration goals

* defined desired future status of the ecosystem
* involve stakeholders, partners, local communities, and the public in a shared vision
* restoration that is effective (restores ecological integrity), efficient (cost-effective), and engaging (respects socio-cultural linkages with nature)
* realistic goals that balance conflicts are desirable
* want to restore some of the park back to early succession, tallgrass, oak savanna habitat
* maintain visitor experience
* avoid archeological sites
* maintain sand dunes and some forest
* create a habitat suitable to support a healthy and self-sustaining mottled duskywing population and other oak savanna species

a case study - reintroduction of the mottled duskywing

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4. develop objectives

* measurable project objectives based on goals
* ex. specific % removal of an invasive species, a specific species population size
* objectives can be ecological as well as cultural (cultural heritage, visitor experience, participation, education, spirituality)
* best practice to use one or more reference ecosystems to identify pre-disturbance conditions
* control invasive
* manage deer browsing
* restore some habitat back to oak savanna
* sustain a mottled duskywing population comparable to model populations
* minimal disturbance to park visitors
* community involvement in restoration

a case study - reintroduction of the mottled duskywing

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5. develop detailed restoration plan

* define scope of the project (spatially and temporally)
* do we want to achieve max restoration, or set things in motion for recovery?
* consideration of scientific design
* practical considerations (cost, personnel, etc.)
* monitoring
* mandatory local firewood use
* boot brushes at trailheads
* encourage visitors to stay on trails
* invasive species removal (e.g., giant hogweed)
* annual first nations deer harvest (chippewas of kettle and stony point first nations)
* plant host plant and other native oak savanna species
* prescribed burning & clearing pine plantations
* mottled duskywing reintroduction
* some park closure
* involving NGOs, indigenous communities, volunteers, universities, etc

a case study - reintroduction of the mottled duskywing

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6. implementation

* effective, efficient, and engaging implementation
* communication of results

a case study - reintroduction of the mottled duskywing

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7. monitor, evaluate, adapt, report

* monitoring that includes mechanisms for determining how results will inform subsequent management decisions
* evaluate if the restoration has been successful
* if no, return to step 2 and adapt to any problems being faced
* continually communicate with everyone involved
* continual restoration and reintroductions
* mark recapture and plant counts
* documentary being made, continual conservations being had, research being reported, education programming

reintroduction results so far

* 700 individuals released in 2021, another 400 in 2022
* initial results look promising
* adapt: accelerate releasees to time up better with peak flight times and additional planting where sparse

wetlands

* wetlands often damaged or filled in
* restoration efforts focus on re-creating natural hydrology then planting naive species
* removing dams and other structures, and controlled releases of after can increase biodiversity
* often cant revert original

streams

* river damming has severe and extensive impacts
* removal ideal to restore flow for ecosystem recovery
* ex. idlewood creek in kitchener
* re-established fish channel from grand river

lakes

* eutrophication is a common problem
* ex. lake erie - deteriorating water quality, extensive algal blooms, oxygen depletion, declining fish populations
* canada and the us have invested billions of dollars in waste water treatment and fish population supplementation leading to recovery
* water clarity improved in part due to zebra mussel invasion - not the same but significant restoration
* many of the same issues in marine ecosystems

praries and farmlands

* site preperation by shallow plowing, burning and raking and invasive species removal if necessary
* re-establish native plants
* many former agricultural lands have been restored to prairies
* ex. sharon creek tallgrass prairie near delaware, ON - managed with prescribed burns

tropical dry forest in costa rica

* have suffered from large scale conversion to cattle ranches and farms
* collaborative project to restore biology and cultural connectivity
* eliminating brush fires, banning logging and hunting, tree planning
* in 30 years re-established a dense, young forest but will take 200-500 years to regain original structure

exercise: Joanys woods

* a land trust has acquired this land to restore it
* historic land use: agriculture, logging
* current state: norway spruce plantation (monoculture of non-native species)
* has well maintained and regularly used trails
* in close proximity to agriculture, deciduous forests, and fragmented meadows
* invasive species: autumn olive
* pollinators, bird species, and bats observed
* what are some ideas or important considerations for restoration at this site?

what is sustainable development? (TED talk by Pavan Sukhdev)

“sustainable development” has many definitions that differ in what is to be sustained, why, and for how long;

* Brundtland (1987): “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”

traditional economics

* examines the economic impacts of environmental policies and decisions
* environmental “accounting” (cost-benefit analyses)
* focuses on human preferences (demand)
* assumes no ecological limits to economic growth

accounting may include

* use values, including direct (consumptive) and indirect uses (ecosystem services, cultural amenities)
* non-use values, including existence, option, and bequest value

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these values are incorporated into cost-benefit analyses

* e.g. catskill/delaware watersheds
* replacement cost for water purification infrastructure = 6 billion to 8 billion (capital) vs 1 billion to protect the watershed

how can our current economic system be made more sustainable?

ecological economics

* incorporation of biodiversity/environmental values in economic analyses
* sustainable decisions
* focuses on environmental consequences of economic decisions (Supply side)
* the economy is embedded within the environment

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how can our current economic system be made more sustainable? changes

* “internalize” environmental costs into prices and economic cost-benefit analyses)
* e.g. paper mill
* incorporate indirect use values and option values
* acknoweledge that many biological resources do not follow classical economic models
* e.g. supply may not be able to meet demand
* demand may increase with price
* some resources may appear to be more valuable as money in the bank
* e.g. mahogany may grow 2%/year, but bank interest = 5%/year
* reduce “perverse subsidies”
* e.g. highway mainenance
* create a demand for environmentally-friendly products, and encourage people to reduce consumption
* promote local ownership/control of resources to empower local people and reduce overexploitation due to
* “tragedy of the commons”
* globalized economies
* wealthy landlords
* incorporate environmental factors into indices of wealth
* e.g. “genuine progress indivators” vs gross domestic product
* change economic emphasis from growth (quantitative increase) to development (qualitative improvement)
* =’steady state economics'
* incorporate values for natural capital and ecological services into economic models
* increase funding for conservation
* governments (e.g. overseas development funds)
* NGOs and charities
* debt for nature swaps
* carbon pricing (e.g. Namibia)

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together with changes in values, these approaches can create a sustainable society

ex situ conservation

* protection and management of biodiversity in human-built environments
* also includes long-term collection and storage of gametes, somatic tissues, seeds, DNA, etc., which can be used in a variety of research and in situ conservation efforts
* captive collections displayed in zoos also provide educational opportunities to visitors and potential to raise funds that can be directed to in situ conservation
* most effective when integrated with in situ efforts
* IUCN lists 69 plant/animal species that exist only in captive populations, ie. they are globally extinct in the wild