anat&phys 337 exam 1

sagittal plane

divides the body or organ vertically into R and L sides

if this vertical plane runs directly down the middle of the body it’s called **midsagittal** or **medial** plane

coronal/frontal plane

divides the body or an organ into an anterior (front) portion and a posterior (rear) portion

transverse/horizontal plane

divides the body or organ horizontally into upper and lower portions

polarity

differences in structure and function between 2 surfaces

basal surface

attached to the underlying tissue

basement membrane

sits below basal surface of epithelial cells and anchors the cells to the underlying tissue

apical surface

free surface away from underlying tissue

microvilli

extensions that serve to increase the surface area for absorption

cilia

extensions that beat in unison to move fluids across surface (surface parallel transport)

tight junctions

holds cells together so there’s no space between them, prevent substances from moving in between cells so forced to go through cells

adhering junctions

acts like a belt holding epithelial cells together for support and stability of the tissue

desmosomes

holds cells together like a push button on a jacket to provide support and stability of the tissue

gap junctions

forms intercellular passageway between membranes of adjacent cells to facilitate movement of small molecules and ions between the cytoplasm of adjacent cells

selective permeability

cells of an epithelium act as gatekeepers of the body controlling permeability and allowing selective transfer of materials across a physical barrier

surface parallel transport

transport of substances across the free surface of the epithelium

transcellular transport (absorption)

absorption of substances through the cell, where it is processed to some degree before being released into the blood and/or underlying tissue

avascular

don’t contain blood vessels

regeneration

rapidly replacing damaged/dead cells

simple

single layer of cells, with every cell resting on the basal lamina of the basement membrane

stratified

more than 1 layer of cells, with only the basal layer resting on the basal lamina of the basement membrane

squamous

flattened and thin (cell shape)

pseudostratified

only 1 layer of cells, but the height of the cells vary, giving the appearance of more than 1 layer

simple squamous epithelium

function: allows materials to pass through quickly via simple diffusion or filtration

location: places where we need substances to pass quickly and relatively easily thru the epithelium (alveoli, air sacs, lungs)

simple cuboidal epithelium

function: secretion and absorption

location: certain glands, kidney tubules

non-ciliated simple columnar epithelium (with microvilli)

function: absorption and secretion

location: digestive tract

stratified squamous epithelium

function: protection

location: skin (can afford to lose some layers)

pseudostratified columnar epithelium (ciliated)

function: surface parallel transport, secretion of mucus

location: locations with smooth muscle to move substances through a tract (trachea)

transitional epithelium

function: allows urinary organs to expand and stretch to fill with urine

location: bladder, ureters, urethra

metaplasia

normal epithelia from one area replaced by another form of epithelia not typical for that region

because of stress or damaging thing

endocrine glands

ductless glands that produce and secrete hormones into bloodstream

humoral secretion

secretion that can be as a result of something else in body (if BS is too high)

neural secretion

secretion that can be used as a result of when a neuron and gland communicates

hormonal secretion

secretion that occurs as a result of when 1 hormone triggers another hormone to secrete

exocrine glands

glands that secrete their products through ducts to the epithelial surface (sweat glands)

goblet cells

unicellular exocrine gland, produces mucin

mucin

mixed with water makes mucus, protects and lubricates many internal body surfaces

elastic fibers

recoiling, stretching and going back to original shape

collagen fibers

strong, resisting fibers

reticular fibers

help create scaffolding, strong

connective tissue proper

largest category of connective tissue, fibroblasts secrete collagen fibers, elastic fibers, reticular fibers

far fewer cells, lots of stuff around it

composed of some cells, and abundant extracellular matrix

loose connective tissue

found between many organs where it acts both to absorb shock and binds tissues together

areolar connective tissue

widely distributed, highly vascular, contains all 3 fiber types

function: fill spaces

adipose connective tissue

made of adipocytes (fat cells), highly vascular

functions: insulation, energy water and hormone storage, support and protect organs

reticular connective tissue

network of reticular fibers in loose ground substance, gives shape to organs (spleen and liver) while also allowing space for blood and cells to pass through it

functions: forms soft, internal skeleton-scaffolding

dense connective tissue

contains more collagen fibers than does loose connective tissue (greater resistance to stretching)

dense regular connective tissue

parallel thick collagen fibers

function: withstand tension in 1 direction

dense irregular connective tissue

mainly thick collagen fibers in a random arrangement

function: withstand tension in multiple directions

elastic connective tissue

mainly elastic fibers

function: stretch and recoil

neoplasia

uncontrolled cell growth (leads to tumors - benign or cancerous)

necrosis

bad cell death due to disease (pathology)

apoptosis

good cell death (replacement of old worn down cells with healthy cells)

epithelial tissue

lines every body surface and structure (outer & inner surfaces of organs, skin)

functions of epithelial tissue

protection, selective permeability, secretion, sensation, simple diffusion, absorption (transcellular transport through cell), surface parallel transport

cardiac muscle

muscle that cannot divide and cannot generate new muscle cells

striated

under involuntary control

located in the heart

contains intercalated discs and gap junctions

muscle cells branch

smooth muscle

capable of dividing and generating new smooth muscle cells

under involuntary control

located in the walls of blood vessels and hollow organs

small cells with tapering ends

skeletal muscle

cannot divide but has other cells that can generate new muscle cells

located in the muscles that move our arms, legs, head, neck, and trunk

striated

under voluntary control

very long muscle fibers

muscle fiber

muscle cell, long and cylindrical, span the entire length of the muscle

myofibrils

cylindrical structures extending the entire length of the muscle fiber

myofilaments

actin and myosin proteins organized into repetitive groupings, results in striations

sarcomere

functional unit of skeletal muscle tissue

neuromuscular junction

where the motor neuron meets the muscle fiber

motor unit

single motor neuron and the muscle fibers it controls

where can we find fine motor units?

hands

slow oxidative fibers

aerobic, endurance fibers

fast, oxidative fibers

anaerobic, instantaneous power fibers

muscle atrophy

reduction in muscle size, tone, and power

muscle hypertrophy

increase in muscle fiber size (both myofibrils and myofilaments increase in number, all resulting in the muscle increasing in size)

proprioceptors

special receptors located in our skeletal muscles (muscle spindles), tendons (Golgi tendon organs), and joints (free nerve endings)

function of proprioceptors

monitor tension, pressure and movement at the joint

send input on body movements to the CNS

generates a response

sent through spinocellular tract to cerebellum for other processing, or reflex, or both

reflex arc

rapid, automatic involuntary reactions of muscles to stimulus (proprioceptors or pain receptors)

ipsilateral

a reflex arc may be _________, both the receptor and effector organs are on the same side

controlateral

a reflex arc may be __________, sensory impulses from a receptor organ cross over through the spinal cord to activate effector organs on the opposite limb

what’s included in a reflex arc

receptor, sensory neuron, integration area in the spinal cord, motor neuron, muscle

interneuron

relays info between sensory and motor neurons

central nervous system (CNS)

system that consists of brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

system that consists of all nervous tissue outside of the brain and spinal cord

ganglion

the group of neuronal cell bodies in the PNS

nucleus

the group of neuronal cell bodies in the CNS

nerve

bundle of axons (fibers) in the PNS

tract

bundle of axons (fibers) in the CNS

tendon

muscle to bone attachment, dense regular CT formed by merging of all CT layers, avascular and very strong

endoneurium

CT around each axon

perineurium

CT around individual fascicles (small groups of axons)

epineurium

CT around the entire nerve

unipolar neuron (pseudounipolar neuron)

neuron that has an axon that emerges from the cell body, but it splits so that the axon can extend along a very long distance, sense pain and touch

bipolar neurons

neuron that has 2 processes which extend from each end of the cell body opposit to each other, sense special senses like visual and smell

multipolar neurons

all of the other neurons that are not unipolar or bipolar, most common in the body, they have 1 axon and 2 or more dendrites

glial cells

provide protection, insulation, and nourishment for neurons

provide supportive scaffolding for neurons

can divide through life

much more abundant than neurons

myelination

process of wrapping an axon with a myelin sheath

astrocytes

glial cell that regulates the inflammatory response to damage

contribute to the blood-brain barrier

regulate the environment around the neurons

microglia

glial cell that phagocytizes debris from the dead or dying cells and invading microorganisms

patrol the CNS, extending and retracting processes looking for areas of damaged, dead, or dying cells

oligodendrocytes

glial cell that myelinates axons in the CNS

ependymal cells

glial cell that has cilia that help move cerebrospinal fluid through the CNS

filter blood to make cerebrospinal fluid

satellite cells

glial cell that surrounds the cell bodies of neurons in the PNS, isolating them and protecting them from the surrounding tissue

schwann cells

glial cells that myelinate axons in the PNS

astrocytes & microglia

after a head injury, which glial cells would try to repair the damaged area?

ganglia, nuclei

collections of neuronal cell bodies in the PNS are called ________, while collections of neuronal cell bodies in the CNS are called _________.

dendrite

receives input from other neurons and carries it to the cell body

axon

single fiber that emerges from the cell body and propagates the nerve impulse, which is communicated to one or more cells

cell body (soma)

processing or “thinking” part of the neuron