AP Psych

Biopsychosocial Approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

Biological Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies the links between biological (including neuroscience and behavior genetics) and psychological processes

Evolutionary Psychology

the study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection

Psychodynamic Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders

Behavioral Psychology

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning

Cognitive Psychology

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Social-Cultural Psychology

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking

Psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

Basic Research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

Developmental Psychology

the scientific study of physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

Educational Psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning

Personality Psychology

the study of an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

Social Psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

Applied Research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimize human behavior in workplaces

Human Factors Psychology

the study of how people and machines interact resulting in the design of machines and environments

Counseling Psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, and marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

Clinical Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

Psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practice by physicians who often provide medical (ex. drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy

SQ3R

a study method incorporating 5 steps: Survey, Question, Read, Rehearse, Review

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (“I knew it all along” phenomenon)

Critical Thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

Theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic findings extends to other participants and circumstances

Operational Definition

a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables

Case Study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in dept in the hope of revealing universal principles

Survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

Population

all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn (except for national studies, not country’s whole)

Random Sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Naturalistic Observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

Correlation Coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

Scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of 2 variables. the slope of the points suggest the direction of the relationship between the 2 variables. the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation)

Illusory Correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

Experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one of more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (dependent variable). by random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

Random Assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

Double-Blind Procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or the placebo. commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

Placebo Effect

experimental results caused by expectation alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent

Confounding Variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

Standard Deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score—usually phrased as “plus or minus”…

Lesion

tissue destruction; naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

an amplified recording of waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s surface—measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

CT (computed tomography) Scan

a series of X-rays taken from different angles and combined by computed into composite representation of a slice through the body—also called CAT scan

PET (positron emission tomography)

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue—showing brain anatomy

fMRI (functional MRI)

a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans—showing brain function

Brainstem

the oldest part of the central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull—responsible for automatic survival functions

Medulla

the base of the brainstem—controls heartbeat and breathing

Reticular Formation

a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

Thalamus

the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on the top of the brainstem—directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Cerebellum

the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem—functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance.

Limbic System

doughnut-shaped neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres—associated with emotions and drives

Amygdala

two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system—linked to emotion

Hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus—it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temp), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward

Cerebral Cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres—the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center

Glial Cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

Frontal Lobes

portion of cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead, involved in—speaking, muscle movements, making plans and judgements

Parietal Lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and towards the rear—receives sensory input for touch and body position

Occipital Lobes

portion of cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head—includes areas that receive information from the visual fields

Temporal Lobes

portion of cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears—includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

Motor Cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

Sensory Cortex

an area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

Association Areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions—rather they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

Broca’s Area

controls language expression that directs the muscle movements involved in speech—helps in producing coherent speech

Wernicke’s Area

controls language reception—a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression (usually in left temporal lobe)—helps in speech processing and understanding language

Plasticity

brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

Neurogenesis

formation of new neurons

Corpus Callosum

large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Split Brain

condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s 2 hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

Consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

Cognitive Neuroscience

interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

Dual Processing

principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

Biological Psychology

branch of psychology concerned with links between biology and behavior

Neuron

a nerve cell—basic building block of the nervous system

Sensory/Afferent Neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

Motor/Efferent Neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

Dendrite

the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Axon

extension of neuron—ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles/glands

Myelin Sheath

layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons—enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses and the impulse hops from one node to the next

Action Potential

neural impulse—brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Threshold

level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

Synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron—the tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap/cleft

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons.  When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

Reuptake

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron

Endorphins

“morphine within”—natural, opiatelike, neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure

Nervous System

body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system

Central Nervous System

brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System

sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body

Nerves

bundled axons that form neural “cables” connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

Somatic (skeletal) Nervous System

division of peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles

Autonomic Nervous System

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart).  Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

Sympathetic Nervous System

division of autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations (fight or flight)

Parasympathetic Nervous System

division of autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

Reflex

a simple, autonomic response to a sensory stimulus as the knee-jerk response

Endocrine System

the body’s “slow” chemical communication system—a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

Adrenal Glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.

Pituitary Gland

the endocrine system’s most influential gland.  Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.