Unit 4 - Scientific, Philosophical, and Political Developments

"God's handiwork"

in the Middle Ages, this is what scientific ideas were considered as and therefore an appropriate subject for study - strict theological framework and reliance on ancient authorities (such as Aristotle and Galen) limited where they could go

"natural philosophers"

medieval scientists who preferred refined logical analysis to systematic observations of the natural world

alchemy and hermetic magic

two ideas fused together that may have made the Scientific Revolution possible - may have increased belief in a human's own ability to achieve

Ptolemaic universe

a series of nine concentric spheres w/ a fixed or motionless earth at its center - Earth imperfect and constantly changing - could not account for observable planetary movements, but was consistent with Christian theory of creation

Aristotle

a Greek Philosopher, taught Alexander the Great, started a famous school, studied with Plato; according to this Ancient Greek Philosopher, circular movement was most "perfect" kind of motion and appropriate for "perfect" heavenly bodies

the Empyrean Heaven

In Ptolemy's geocentric universe, place beyond tenth sphere that was location of God and all saved souls - significant part of Ptolemaic universe that dominated Europe for centuries and represents long-standing religious influence on science that became shattered by Scientific Revolution

geocentric universe

the idea that planets revolved in perfect circular orbits around the earth in the universe

epicycles

Concentric spheres within spheres that enabled paths of planets to more precisely correspond to observations - proposed by scientists who weren't satisfied with Ptolemaic conception of universe - represents growing opposition to Ptolemaic universe and yearning for change preceding Scientific Revolution

Nicolaus Copernicus

studied math and astronomy - created heliocentric model of universe - became aware of ancient views that contradicted the Ptolematic System. He completed a manuscript called On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres. He relied on data from his predecessors. He believed that the Earth centered world was too complicated. Argued that Aristotle's Heavenly Spheres and circular orbits were correct.

On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres

Author: Copernicus; Purpose: Disputed the church on the idea of the earth being geocentric. He believed the earth was heliocentric (not the center of the universe) - revolutionized the way people perceive the structure of the universe

heliocentric universe

sun center of universe; developed by Copernicus - 8 spheres w/ sun motionless at the center + sphere of fixed stars at rest in eighth sphere

Tycho Brahe

Danish astronomer who collected data proving that Copernicus was correct, although unable to accept Copernicus's suggestion that the earth moved - observations from elaborate Uraniborg Castle

Johannes Kepler

German astronomer who succeeded Brahe as Rudolf II's imperial mathematician - using Brahe's data, arrived at three laws of planetary motion that confirmed Copernicus's heliocentric theory while modifying it

three laws of planetary motion

1) Orbits of planets are elliptical, not circular 2) Planets do not move at uniform speed while in their orbits 3) The time it takes for planet to orbit the sun is directly based on its distance from the sun

Galileo Galilei

Italian astronomer and mathematician who was the first to use a telescope to study the stars, inaugurating a new age in astronomy - made remarkable discoveries, such as Jupiter's moons, Venus's phases, and sun spots - demolished traditional cosmology -\> universe composed of material substance like Earth rather than perfect and unchanging substance

The Starry Messenger

Galileo's treatise of 1610 where he published his celestial observations made with a telescope - stunned contemporaries + made Europeans aware of a new picture of the universe

Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems

Galileo's most famous work that described an imaginary conversation about the theories of Ptolemy and Copernicus; argued in favor of Copernicus' theories - widely available to the public and alarmed church authorities

Galileo and the Inquisition

The Catholic church condemned Galileo for proving that the earth revolves around the sun - Heliocentrism considered heretical - undermined further scientific work in Italy, the forefront of scientific innovation -\> leadership in science passed to northern countries

Isaac Newton

English mathematician and scientist - invented calculus, investigated composition of light, + inaugurated work on law of universal gravitation - formulated three laws of motion - supposedly inspired by sight of falling apple - major work \= Principia

Principia

Newton's book which established the law of universal gravitation and banished Ptolemy's laws and universe for good - synthesized theories of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo - 3 laws of motion: 1) every object continues in state of rest or uniform motion in straight line unless deflected by force 2) rate of change of motion of object proportional to force acting on it 3) to every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction - applied laws of motion to planetary bodies + terrestrial objects

universal law of gravitation

one of Newton's three laws of motion - explains that planetary bodies continue in elliptical orbits around the sun because every object in the universe is attracted to every other object by a force called gravity

Galen

Greek anatomist whose theories formed the basis of European medicine until the Renaissance (circa 130-200) - anatomy: relied on animal dissection to inaccurately picture human anatomy, physiology: belief that there were two separate blood systems, disease: believed in the four bodily humors

four bodily humors

blood: warm and moist, yellow bile: warm and dry, phlegm: cold and moist, and black bile: cold and dry - examination of urine became chief diagnostic tool for disease - treatment w/ traditional herbal medicines sometimes beneficial

Paracelsus

rejected work of Aristotle and Galen; wanted to replace traditional system w/ new chem philosophy based on new understanding of nature from fresh observation and experiment; felt humans were small replicas of larger world and chem reactions in universe reproduce in humans on a smaller scale; said disease was caused by an imbalance of the four bodily humors located in specific organs and that they could be treated by chemical remedies: "new drugs"

"new drugs"

"like cures like" - belief that poison that caused a disease would be its cure if used in proper form and quantity - similar to modern day vaccinations

Andreas Vesalius

Flemish surgeon considered father of modern day anatomy and provided detailed overviews of the human body and its systems - wrote On the Fabric of the Human Body

On the Fabric of the Human Body

Book written by Vesalius based on personal dissection of body to illustrate dissection - explained that blood vessels came from the heart not the liver - presented careful exam of individual organs + general structure of human body - artistic advances of Renaissance + printing -\> superior illustrations to past - hands-on approach -\> corrected some of Galen's most glaring errors but still stuck to some (such as two kinds of blood in veins and arteries)

William Harvey

English physician and scientist who discovered the circulation of the blood from the heart - wrote On the Motion of the Heart and Blood

On the Motion of the Heart and Blood

William Harvey's discoveries of the role of the heart in the circulatory system - heart beginning of circulation in body, same blood flows in both veins and arteries, and blood makes complete circuit as it passes through body - work based on meticulous observations + experiments -\> demolition of Greek erroneous contentions - ideas didn't achieve general recognition until 1660s

Robert Boyle

Irish chemist - one of first scientists to conduct controlled experiments - work on properties of gases -\> Boyle's law: volume of gas varies w/ pressure exerted on it - rejected medieval belief that all matter consisted of same components in favor of matter being composed of atoms, later known as chemical elements

Antoine Lavoisier

father of modern chemistry - invented system of naming chemical elements - helped show water\=compound of oxygen + hydrogen -\> demonstrated fundamental rules of chemical combination

Margaret Cavendish

educated scientist and astronomer - not popularizer of science for women but participant of crucial scientific debates - despite achievements, excluded from membership in Royal Society - attacks defects of rational + empiricist approaches to scientific knowledge and especially critical of growing belief that through science, humans would be masters of nature; excluded from English Royal Society, regardless of her many accomplishments; wrote several books contrasting her knowledge with the knowledge of other scientists

Maria Sibylla Merian

important entomologist - trained in father's workshop to learn the art of illustration -\> very important bc exact observations of insects and plants demonstrated through superb illustrations

Maria Winkelmann

most famous female astronomer in Germany - educated by father + uncle + received training in astronomy - denied post as assistant astronomer in Berlin Academy bc they feared precedent of hiring a woman - first woman to discover a comet

querelles des femmes

"the woman's question" - an ongoing, centuries-long debate about the nature and value of women - male opinions largely carried over from medieval times and unfavorable - educated women had to overcome female liabilities to be like men

René Descartes

created new rational-mathematical system w/ sense of divine approval - starting point for new system was doubt, explained in famous work Discourse on Method - one factor was beyond doubt: his own existence ("I think, therefore I am") - believed in separation of mind and matter - father of modern rationalism

Discourse on Method

Written by René Descartes - used skepticism within new system of thought rooted in doubt - said "I think, therefore I am" bc one thing beyond doubt was Descartes's own existence

"I think, therefore I am"

Descartes felt that one factor was beyond doubt: his own existence -\> he would only accept things that his reason said were true

Descartes' deductive method

"I think, therefore I am" - start w/ self-evident truths and deduce more complex conclusions - emphasis on deduction complemented Bacon's stress on experiment and induction within scientific method

Scientific Method

a series of steps followed to solve problems including collecting data, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and stating conclusions - used to examine/understand physical realm - crucial to evolution of science

Francis Bacon's inductive method

rather than beginning w/ assumed 1st principles, urged scientists to proceed from particular to general - from carefully organized experiments and through observations, correct generalizations developed - concern for practical results rather than pure science

"to conquer nature in action"

said by Bacon; human power -\> control and domination of nature became central proposition of modern science and technology that accompanied it

Benedict de Spinoza's pantheism

God not simply creator of universe: he was the universe - all that is is in God, and nothing can be apart from God

Ethics Demonstrated in the Geometrical Manner

Written by Benedict de Spinoza - expressed philosophy of pantheism - humans as much part of God/nature/universal order as other natural objects - nature doesn't exist only for one's use

Blaise Pascal

French mathematician and scientist who sought to keep science and religion united - believed that religious faith was necessary because reason alone could not satisfy peoples, hopes and aspiration - felt Christian religion not contrary to reason - wrote Pensées - failed to achieve goal of uniting Christianity + science -\> Europe continued to become more secularized

Pensées

Written by Pascal - tried to convert rationalists to Christianity by appealing to reason + emotions - humans were frail creatures often deceived by their senses, misled by reason, + battered by emotions

English Royal Society

society funded by merchants and scientists and emphasized theoretical science, which allowed them with more options - formal charter from King Charles II in 1662 + little gov encouragement

French Royal Academy of Sciences

society funded by Louis XIV, which was thought to benefit the king and state and emphasized practical science for new tools and machines - abundant state support + gov control

Journal des Savants

Scientific journal published by French Academy that printed results of experiments and general scientific knowledge

Philosophical Transactions

journal published by English Royal Society that documented experiments and used to communicate with other scientists by the English Royal Society; the prototype for medical journals

Immanuel Kant

a German philosopher defined Enlightenment as "man's leaving his self-caused immaturity" - motto of Enlightenment: "Dare to know! Have the courage to use your own intelligence!"

reason

a word used among intellectuals who dared to know - advocated application of scientific method to understanding of all life - all systems of thought subject to scientific way of thinking if only people freed themselves from old, worthless traditions

Fontenelle's Plurality of Worlds

presented in form of intimate convo between lady aristocrat and her lover in convo under the stars; in two nights, lady learned basics of new mechanistic universe - science no longer monopoly of experts but part of literature - downplayed scientists' religious backgrounds -\> increased skepticism towards religion

Pierre Bayle

skeptical about religion and increased secularization of thought in work - despite being a protestant, leading critic of traditional religious attitudes - attacked superstition, religious intolerance, and dogmatism - religious intoleration created hypocrites contrary to what religion should be about

James Cook's Travels

an account of James Cook's journey to the discovery of the Pacific Island of Tahiti and of New Zealand and Australia, this book also became a bestseller - talked about the exotic peoples and expressed them as being happier than the Europeans - contributed to cultural relativism

John Locke's tabula rasa

the idea that every human was born with a blank mind/ was born as a blank slate - all knowledge derived from environment and people molded by experiences and senses - by changing environment, people could be changed and new society created

Essay Concerning Human Understanding

written by John Locke - denied Descartes's belief in innate ideas - every person born with tabula rasa (blank mind)

philosophes

literary people, professors, journalists, etc. during the Enlightenment and who popularized the new ideas of the time - focused on human reason and making critical changes to society - primarily from nobility and middle class

Montesquieu's The Spirit of the Laws

written by Montesquieu - compared the study of governments and attempted to apply the scientific method to social and political arena to ascertain "natural laws" governing social relationships of human beings - est. 3 basic kinds of govs: 1. republics, 2. monarchy, 3. depotism, depending on size of state - emphasized importance of separation of powers - influenced U.S. Constitution

Voltaire's Treatise on Toleration

Voltaire argued in this book that religious toleration had created no problems for England and Holland and reminded governments that "all men are brothers under God"

deism

a religious outlook of many philosophes that suggested the existence of God who had created the universe but had no direct involvement in the world he'd created and allowed it to run according to its own natural laws

Denis Diderot's Encyclopedia

book edited by Denis Diderot - called "greatest work of his life" - purpose to "change the general way of thinking" - attacked religious superstition and advocated toleration to create more reasonable society - attempted to contain all knowledge in entire world

"science of man"

belief that Newton's scientific methods could be used to discover the natural laws that governed human actions

David Hume

believed that "science of man" was possible - argued that careful examination of experiences in human life -\> knowledge of human nature making this SoM possible - asked how experimental learning affects us

Physiocrats

group of economists who believed that the wealth of a nation was derived solely from the value of its land - rejected mercantilist policies in favor of individuals free to pursue their own economic self-interests - advocated laissez-faire economics (gov should leave economy alone)

Francois Quesnay

leader of Physiocrats - land \= wealth, agriculture is useful - rejected mercantilism's emphasis on $$ for state - self-interest is good - laissez-faire (no gov regulation of economy + free market)

Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations

agreed with Physiocrats (condemned mercantilist use of tariffs to protect home industries, laissez-faire) EXCEPT... labor theory of value: labor of individuals constituted true wealth of a nation

laissez-faire

idea that the state should in no way interrupt natural economic forced by governmental regulation fo economy but should leave it alone

Condorcet and Baron d'Holbach

wealthy German aristocrats who believed in atheism and materialism w/ exaggerated claim for progress- in d'Holbach's System of Natura, humans were machines and God product of human mind and unnecessary - shocked many fellow philosophes

Jean-Jacques Rousseau's The Social Contract and the general will

tried to harmonize individual liberty w/ governmental authority - social contract\=agreeement on part of entire society to be governed by its general will - liberty achieved through being forced to follow what was best for all ppl bc what was best for all was best for each individual - true freedom \= adherence to laws that one has imposed on oneself - "Man is born free but is everywhere in chains"

Émile

Rousseau's treatise that was one of most important works on education - in form of novel, "on the education of the natural man" - education should foster rather than restrict children's natural instincts - emphasis on heart and sentiment

Mary Astell's A Serious Proposal to the Ladies

proposal that women needed to become better educated - believed men would resent proposal

Mary Wollstonecraft

English writer and early feminist who denied male supremacy and advocated equal education for women - viewed as the founder of modern European feminism

Vindication on the Rights of Woman

written by Mary Wollstonecraft - pointed out 2 contradictions in views of women held by Enlightenment thinkers such as Rousseau: 1. to argue women must obey men contradictory to subjugation of subjects to monarchs / slaves to slave owners, 2. Enlightenment based on innate reason; if women have reason, they're entitled to same rights as men

the salon and the coffeehouse

two convenient ways of social exchange that served as the gathering places for the exchange of ideas - one was a drawing room inside local houses hosted by women, allowing them to be in a position of influence, but reputation depended on stature of males a hostess was able to attract - the other, run by men (but women could still converse)

Marie-Therese de Geoffrin

When Encyclopedia was suppressed by French authorities, welcomed encyclopedists to her salon and offered financial assistance to complete work in secret

American Philosophical Society

Society in Philadelphia in which doctors, lawyers, and local officials gathered to discuss Enlightened ideas

Rococo

artistic style that stressed grace and gentle action - highly secular: lightness spoke of pursuit of pleasure and happiness - paintings more feminine than predecessors

Antoine Watteau

greatest Rococo painter - lyrical views of aristocratic life reflected world of upper-class pleasure and joy -\> underneath was element of sadness as artist revealed fragility and transitioning nature of pleasure, love, and life

Balthasar Neumann

a Rococo artist whose two masterpieces were the pilgrimage church of the Vierzehnheiligen (The Fourteen Saints) and the Bishop's Palace - secular + spiritual easily interchangeable w/ fancy ornament + rich detail

Neoclassicism

the revival of a classical style of art - wanted to recapture dignity and simplicity of classical style of ancient Greece and Rome

Jacques-Louis David

French Neoclassical painter known for his classical elements - style w/ moral seriousness + emphasis on honor + patriotism made him very popular during French Revolution

Johann Sebastian Bach

Baroque composer - very religious -\> felt that music was above all means to worship God

George Frederick Handel

German composer, profoundly secular, wrote operas and for public audiences, most known for religious music (baroque)

Franz Joseph Haydn

(1732-1809) Classical composer who spent most of his life as musical director for wealthy Esterhazy brothers; visits to England introduced him to world of public concerts rather than princely patrons; wrote The Creation and The Seasons

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

Classical composer - child prodigy who wrote his first opera at 12 - prolific composer, wrote some of the world's greatest operas - moved to Vienna - died debt-ridden at 35

Samuel Richardson's Pamela

a novel focusing on a servant girl's resistance to numerous seduction attempts by her master -\> marries her + virtue is rewarded - large audience bc appealed to sensibility + taste for sentimental + emotional

Henry Fielding's History of Tom Jones, A Foundling

Reacting to Richardson's moral seriousness, fielding wrote about people without doubt that survived by their wits - novel was about adventures of young scoundrel - although emphasized action rather than inner feeling, attacked hypocrisy of the time

Edward Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire

historical writing that portrayed the growth of Christianity as a major reason for Rome's eventual collapse - believed in idea of progress + expressed optimism about future of Euro civilization + ability of Europeans to avoid fate of Romans

Addison and Steele's Spectator

best known magazine that instructed and entertained - appealed to women with its praise of family, marriage, and courtesy

newspapers and libraries

an effective and cheap way to spread news free in coffeehouses; as a result of increased literacy - books got wider circulation

Realschule and Volkschulen

in Berlin, Germany, broad school that offered modern languages, geography, and bookkeeping to prepare boys for careers in business - in response to complaints from those who wanted a more practical education

Cesare Beccaria

author of On Crime and Punishments - argued that punishments should serve only as deterrents, not as exercises in brutality - opposed to capital punishments bc didn't deter crimes + example of barbarism

Carnival

the most spectacular form of festival celebrated in weeks leading up to lent - heavy consumption of food, heavy drinking, and intense sexual activity - time of aggression to release pent-up feelings

gin

cheap drink and classic sign in English taverns - typically drank by lower classes

chapbooks

form of popular literature printed on cheap paper, short brochures sold by traveling peddlers to lower classes - contained both spiritual and secular material - showed that popular culture did not have to be primarily oral

Joseph II's Toleration Patent

while recognizing Catholicism's public practice, granted Lutherans, Calvinists, and Greek Orthodox the right to worship privately -\> in all other ways, all subjects were now equal

Ashkenazic and Sephardic Jews

1: largest number of Jews who lived in eastern Europe; 2. expelled from Spain in 15th century
**anti-semitism still very prevalent, even though many philosophes denounced the persecution of Jews while still being hostile and mocking customs**

pietism and the Moravian Brethren

a form of Protestant mysticism that emphasized that it was the personal experience of God in one's life that constituted true religious experience - desire for deep personal devotion to God; Nikolaus von Zinzendorf's sect - true religious experiment consisted of mystical dimensions in one's life - opposed to rationalistic approach

John Wesley and Methodism

Anglican minister experienced a deep mystical experience; became a missionary to the English people bringing "glad tidings" of salvation; preached to the masses, especially the lower classes; converts were organized into Methodist societies, which were attempted to be kept within the Anglican church, but became a separate sect