AP Psych Exam Review Terms Part 1

Aaron Beck’s view of depression

A **cognitive therapist** that believed that changing people’s thinking can change their functioning. He has sought to reverse clients’ catastrophizing beliefs about themselves, their situations, and their futures through **gentle questioning**.

absolute threshold

The **minimum stimulation needed** to detect a particular stimulus **50%** of the time. Ex: A hearing specialist would expose each of your ears to varying sound levels. For each tone, the test would define where **half** the tome you could detect the sound and **half** the time you could not.

achievement vs. aptitude tests

Achievement tests are designed to access what a person **has learned**, while aptitude tests are designed to **predict** a person’s **future performance**.

action vs. resting potential

Action potential is a **neural impulse** (a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon) and resting potential is when there is a **negative** charge inside an axon and a **positive** charge outside it.

afferent vs. efferent neurons

**Afferent = sensory** neurons (carry incoming information from the sensory receptors → brain & spinal cord) and **efferent = motor** neurons (carry outgoing information from the brain & spinal cord → muscles & glands).

agonist vs. antagonist chemicals

**Agonists stimulate** responses, while **antagonists inhibit**/block responses when binded to a receptor site.

Ainsworth Strange Situation (Paradigm)

**Experiment** where Ainsworth observed mothers and infants with different **attachment styles** (**secure** - happy w/ mom but distressed when they leave & **insecure** - cling to mom but cry or indifferent when they leave).

Albert Bandura: major view on learning and Bobo Doll experiment

**Experiment** in which a child observed an adult kick and throw a Bobo doll, then later **the child does the same**. By watching a model, we experience **vicarious reinforcement** or **vicarious punishment**, and we learn to anticipate a behavior’s consequences in situations like those we are **observing**.

Albert Ellis: Rational Emotive Therapy

A **confrontational cognitive therapy**, developed by **Albert Ellis**, that **vigorously challenges** people’s illogical, self-defeating attitudes and assumptions.

Alfred Adler: inferiority complex

**Neo-Freudian** who proposed the **inferiority complex** and believed that much of our **behavior** is driven by efforts to conquer **childhood inferiority** feelings that trigger our strivings for superiority and power.

algorithm

A **methodical**, logical rule or **procedure** that **guarantees** **solving** a particular problem.

all-or-nothing/none law of neural firing

A neuron’s reaction of **either firing**, with a **full-strength** response, or **not firing**.

altruism

**Unselfish** regard for the **welfare** of others.

American Psychological Association (APA)

Association that has many **different guidelines** and rules for psychological **experiments** on humans and animals.

anterograde vs. retrograde amnesia

**Anterograde** amnesia is the **inability** to form **new memories**, while **retrograde** amnesia is the **inability** to **retrieve information** from one’s past.

androgyny

Having **both** high **masculine** and high **feminine** traits without employing a gender schema.

apparent motion

**Two** individual shapes may be perceived as a **moving object** if they are presented **one after the other** within a short time span.

arousal

The state of being **physiologically alert**, awake, and attentive

Asch’s conformity study (line segments)

**Experiment** in which **confederates** say the wrong answer, and the participants would **conform** and say the same.

attachment

An **emotional tie** with another person; shown in **young children** by their seeking **closeness** to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.

attribution theory

The theory that we explain **someone’s behavior** by crediting either the **situation** or the person’s **disposition**.

aversive conditioning

A type of **counterconditioning** that associates an **unpleasant state** (such as nausea) with an **unwanted behavior** (such as drinking alcohol).

Babinski response

Occurs after the sole of the **foot** has been **firmly stroked**. The **big toe** then **moves upward**. The other **toes fan out**. This reflex is normal in children up to **2 years old**.

behavior as being adaptive

The **conceptual**, **social**, and **practical** **skills** that are needed to **function** within his/her environment of an individual in everyday life.

bell curve (normal distribution)

A **symmetrical,** bell-shaped curve that describes the **distribution** of many types of data. Most scores fall near the **mean** (about **68** percent fall within one standard deviation of it, then **95**, then **99.7**) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

Benjamin Whorf’s theory of linguistic relativism/determinism

**Whorf’s** hypothesis that **language** determines the way we **think**.

binocular/retinal disparity

A **binocular cue** for perceiving **depth**: By **comparing** images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the **disparity** (difference) between the two images, the **closer** the object.

blind spot

The point at which the optic nerve **leaves** the eye, creating a “blind” spot because **no receptor cells** are located there.

blood brain barrier

**Separates** **blood** that circulates throughout the body from **brain fluid** in the **central nervous system**.

brain: what part do we share w/ animals? how do we differ?

We share **motor**, **sensory,** and **association** areas, but humans and animals have **different amounts** of those areas of the brain (humans have larger association areas, while cats have larger sensory areas).

brainstorming

A problem-solving **strategy** in which ideas are generated **spontaneously** and uninhibitedly, usually in a group setting, **without** any immediate **critical judgment** about their potential value.

Broca’s aphasia

Results from **damage** to a part of the brain called **Broca’s area**, which is located in the **frontal lobe**, usually on the **left** side, and **disrupts speaking**.

bystander intervention: factors that influence it

The best odds of our helping someone occur when:

* the person appears to need and deserve help
* the person is in some way similar to us
* the person is a woman
* we have observed someone else being helpful
* we are not in a hurry
* we are in a small town or rural area
* we are feeling guilty
* we are focused on others and not preoccupied
* we are in a good mood

catharsis

A concept where **emotion** is **released** through physical **actions**. Ex: being angry and then hitting something or screaming to feel better.

Cannon’s critique of James-Lange theory

The body’s responses- heart rate, perspiration, and body temperature- are **too similar**, and they change **too slowly**, to cause the different emotions. Cannon-Bard theory: the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus **simultaneously** triggers

(1) **physiological** responses and \n (2) the subjective experience of **emotion**.

Carol Gilligan’s critique of Kohlberg’s theory

The Kohlberg theory is **biased towards men**. Gilligan believed females tend to **differ** from males both in being **less concerned** with viewing themselves as **separate individuals** and in being more concerned with “making connections.”

major character/personality disorders

Cluster A - Paranoid, schizoid

Cluster B - Antisocial, histrionic, narcissistic, borderline

Cluster C - Avoidant, obsessive-compulsive, dependent

chunking

**Organizing** items into familiar, **manageable units;** often occurs automatically.

classical conditioning

A type of **learning** in which one learns to **link** two or more stimuli and **anticipate** events.

cognitive dissonance theory

The theory that we act to **reduce** the **discomfort** (dissonance) we feel when two of our **thoughts** (cognitions) are **inconsistent**. Ex: when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.

color blindness

The **inability** to **discriminate** between **colors** and to perceive color hues.

complementary colors

“**Opposite** colors”; ex: blue & orange, red & green

control group

In an **experiment**, the group **not exposed** to the **treatment**; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a **comparison** for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

correlation coefficients

A statistical index of the **relationship** between **two variables** (from −1.0 to +1.0).

cortexes of the brain

**frontal lobes** - in the **front**, involved in **speaking** and **muscle movements** and in making **plans** and **judgments**

**parietal lobes** - at the **top** and towards the **back**, receives sensory input for **touch** and **body position**

**occipital lobes** - in the very **back**, receives information from the **visual** fields

**temporal lobes** - **above** the **ears**, includes the **auditory** areas, each receiving information primarily from the **opposite ear**

cross-cultural studies

Males are more likely than females to initiate sexual activity.

cross-sectional study

A **study** in which people of **different ages** are **compared** with one another.

crystallized intelligence

Our **accumulated knowledge** and **verbal skills**; tends to **increase** with **age**.

CS-CR-UCS-UCR

**c**onditioned **s**timulus, **c**onditioned **r**eaction, **u**n**c**onditioned **s**timulus, **u**n**c**onditioned **r**eaction.

Daniel Goleman’s views on emotional intelligence (workplace)

A person's ability to **manage** their **feelings** so that those feelings are **expressed appropriately** and **effectively.** Self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills.

David McClelland’s achievement motivation studies

Every person has one of **three** main driving motivators: the needs for **achievement**, **affiliation**, or **power**.

defense mechanisms

**Repression** - banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

**Regression** - retreating/regressing to an infantile psychosexual stage.

**Reaction formation** - switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites.

**Projection** - disguising one’s own threatening impulses by attributing them to others.

**Rationalization** - offering self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening unconscious reasons for one’s actions.

**Displacement** - shifting sexual/aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable/less threatening object or person.

**Sublimation** - transferring of unacceptable impulses into socially valued motives.

**Denial** - refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities.

deindividuation

The **loss** of **self-awareness** and self-restraint occurring in **group situations** that foster arousal and **anonymity**.

deinstitutionalization

The **release** of institutionalized i**ndividuals** from **institutional care** (as in a psychiatric hospital) to care in the community.

dendrite

A neuron’s bushy, **branching extensions** that **receive messages** and conduct impulses toward the cell body.

depression: tricyclic antidepressants are most widely used to treat it

A **mood disorder** in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or another medical condition, two or more weeks with five or more symptoms, at least one of which must be either (1) **depressed mood** or (2) **loss** of **interest** or **pleasure**.

descriptive vs. inferential statistics

**Descriptive statistics** - numerical data used to **measure** and **describe characteristics** of groups. Includes **measures of central tendenc**y and **measures of variation**.

**Inferential statistics** - numerical data that allow one to **generalize**—to infer from sample data the **probability** of **something being true** of a population.

determinism (linguistic & reciprocal)

**Linguistic** - **Whorf**’s hypothesis that **language** determines the way we **think**.

**Reciprocal** - The interacting influences of **behavior,** **internal cognition**, and **environment**.

developmental psychology

A branch of psychology that studies **physical, cognitive**, and **social change** throughout the **life span**.

Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)

Used to **diagnose** mental disorders, however it **lacks** **scientific basis**.

difference threshold (jnd)

The **minimum difference** between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a **just noticeable difference** (or jnd).

Ex: Imagine you are at a concert and the music is playing at a certain volume. Suddenly, the volume increases slightly, but you do not notice the change. However, if the volume had increased by a larger amount, you would have noticed the difference.

discrimination (learning and race)

For classical conditioning learning, discrimination is the **learned ability** to **distinguish** between a **conditioned stimulus** and **stimuli** that **do not signal** an **unconditioned stimulus**.

For race, discrimination is **unjustifiable negative behavior** toward a **group** and its members.

dissociative disorders

Disorders in which **conscious awareness** becomes **separated** (dissociated) from **previous** memories, thoughts, and feelings.

divergent vs. convergent thinking

**Divergent** - **expands** the number of **possible** problem solutions

**Convergent** - **narrows** the available problem solutions to determine the **single** best solution

dominant responses

The **response** that is most likely to **occur** in the presence of the given array of **stimuli**.

Down syndrome

A condition of mild to severe **intellectual disability** and associated physical disorders caused by an **extra copy** of **chromosome 21**.

dream analysis

A **Freudian** technique to **recover memories**.

drives (drive reduction)

The idea that a **physiological need** creates an **aroused tension state** (a drive) that **motivates** an organism to **satisfy** the need.

Ebbinghaus’ research on memory

Ebbinghaus experimented with his own **ability** to **remember** using a list of **nonsense syllables**, which he attempted to **recall** after different lengths of **time**. His experiences and results revealed a number of key aspects of memory: **Memories weaken over time**.

echoic memory

A **momentary** sensory memory of **auditory stimuli**; if attention is **elsewhere**, sounds and words can still be **recalled** within 3 or 4 seconds.

effects of marijuana

Mild **hallucinogen** (amplifies sensitivity to colors, sounds, tastes, and smells), **relaxes**, **disinhibits**, and may produce a euphoric **high** (impair motor coordination, perceptual skills, and reaction time).

eidetic memory

The ability to vividly **recall** an **image** you are exposed to, but only **briefly**.

electroconculsive shock therapy (ECT)

A **biomedical therapy** for severely **depressed** patients in which a **brief electric current** is sent through the **brain** of an anesthetized patient.

Elizabeth Loftus' research on eyewitness testimony

In one experiment, **two groups** of people **watched** a film of a **traffic accident** and then answered questions about what they had seen. Those asked, “About how fast were the cars going when they *smashed* into each other?” gave **higher** speed estimates than those asked, “About how fast were the cars going when they *hit* each other?” A week later, when asked whether they recalled seeing any broken glass, people who had heard *smashed* were more than twice as likely to report seeing glass fragments. In fact, the film showed no broken glass.

endocrine organs and hormones secreted by them

**Hypothalamus** - controls pituitary gland

**Pituitary gland** - secretes many different hormones, which affect other glands

**Thyroid gland** - metabolism

**Parathyroids** - regulates calcium in the blood

**Adrenal glands** - triggers “fight-or-flight” response

**Pancreas** - regulates sugar in the blood

**Ovary** - secretes female sex hormones

**Testis** - secretes male sex hormones

endorphins

**Hormones** that are released when your body feels **pain** or **stress** (by hypothalamus & pituitary gland).

engram

The enduring offline **physical** and/or **chemical** changes that were elicited by **learning** and underlie the newly formed **memory associations**.

Ex: When I was a child, I fell off my bike and injured my knee. Even though the injury has long since healed, my brain still holds onto the memory of the pain and the event itself. This type of memory trace, created by a specific experience, is an example of a persistent change in neural connections known as a memory engram.

episodic/flashbulb memory

A clear **memory** of an **emotionally significant** **moment** or event.

equity theory of relationships

A **condition** in which people **receive** from a relationship in proportion to what they **give** to it.

Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development

Infancy (to 1 year) - Trust vs. mistrust

Toddlerhood (1-3) - Autonomy vs. shame & doubt

Preschool (3-6) - Initiative vs. guilt

Elementary school (6-puberty) - Competence vs. inferiority

Adolescence (teens-20s) - Identity vs. role confusion

Young adulthood (20s-early 40s) - Intimacy vs. isolation

Middle adulthood (40s-60s) - Generativity vs. stagnation

Late adulthood (60s+) - Integrity vs. despair

ethics of testing

Is it right to place the well-being of humans above animals? (animal testing) Should researchers temporarily stress or deceive people, but only when they believe it is essential to the study? (informed consent/debriefing)

Ethnocentrism

Assuming the **superiority** of one’s **ethnic** group.

expectancy theory (mental set)

Individuals are **motivated** to **perform** if they know that their extra performance is **recognized** and **rewarded.**

Ex: When a person believes that their hard work and effort will lead to a positive outcome, they will be motivated to continue putting in that effort. This is because they have an expectation that their actions will result in a desired outcome. Conversely, if a person does not believe that their efforts will lead to a positive outcome, they will be less motivated to put in effort.

experiment: be able to design one

A research method in which an investigator **manipulates** one or more **factors** (independent variables) to observe the **effect** on some **behavior** or **mental process** (the dependent variable).

false consensus effect

The tendency to **overestimate** the extent to which **others** share our **beliefs** and our **behaviors**.

Ex: During a group discussion, John assumes that everyone shares his political views. He is surprised when his classmates disagree with him.

feature (signal) detector cells: Hubel & Wisel’s research on visual processing

**Nerve cells** in the brain that **respond** to specific **features** of the **stimulus**, such as shape, angle, or movement (recognition of faces).

feature analysis

Theorizes the possibility that **humans** and animals have **neurons** and neural networks that function as **detectors**, observing the individual characteristics, or **features**, of every **object** and **pattern** we encounter.

feral children

Most feral children suffer **mental impairments**, **diminished language ability**, a **lack** of **social skills**, and **physical problems**.

fetal alcohol syndrome: characteristics

**Physical** and **cognitive abnormalities** in **children** caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy **drinking**. In severe cases, signs include a **small**, out-of-proportion **head** and **abnormal** facial features.

figure-ground-phenomenon

The **organization** of the **visual** field into **objects** (the figures) that stand out from their **surroundings** (the ground).

Flynn effect

A phenomenon that **intelligence test** performance has **improved** over time.

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

The tendency for people who have **first agreed** to a **small request** to **comply** later with a **larger** request.

formal operational stage

In **Piaget**’s theory, the stage of **cognitive development** (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think **logically** about **abstract concepts**.

fovea

The central **focal point** in the **retina**, around which the eye’s **cones cluster**.

Francis Galton’s research

He created the first **broad** **intelligence** test based on reaction time, sensory acuity, muscular power, and body proportions. However, there was **no correlation** so his test **failed**.

free association

In **psycho-analysis**, a method of exploring the **unconscious** in which the person relaxes and **says** whatever comes to mind, no matter how **trivial** or **embarrassing**.

frequency polygon

A **graph** depicting a **statistical distribution**, made up of lines connecting the **peaks** of adjacent intervals.

Freudian dream analysis: two levels of interpretation

**manifest content** - according to Freud, the **remembered** **story line** of a dream.

**latent content** - according to Freud, the **underlying** **meaning** of a dream.

frustration-aggression hypothesis

The principle that **frustration**—the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal—creates **anger**, which can generate **aggression**.

functional fixedness

A **cognitive bias** that **limits** a person's ability to see an object's **potential** uses beyond its intended purpose. It **inhibits** creative problem-solving and **innovation**.

Ex: When trying to open a can of paint with a screwdriver, someone with functional fixedness may only think of using the screwdriver as a tool for driving screws, instead of using it to pry open the can.