GLGY 308 - Midterm

Define the term loess

The layer of fine, mineral-rich material that blankets the land from windblown dust.

Where is the loess plateau?

North-Central China

How is the loess plateau formed?

Wind alternately depositing dust or removing dust over the last 2.6 million years

What’s the grain size of loess

20 - 50 micrometers

What are the source areas of loess?

northern China, the Great Plains of North America, central Europe and parts of Russia and Kazakhstan

What are the properties of loess?

Fine, angular grains of silt, fine sand, and calcite admixed with relatively small amounts of clay and clay coatings on the larger grains.

What are the causes of desert silicosis?

Respiratory crystalline silica embeds into alveolar sacs, causing inflammation and scarring in the form of nodular lesions in the lungs.

What are the symptoms of desert silicosis?

• Dyspnea (shortness of breath) exacerbated by exertion

• cough, often persistent and sometimes severe

• fatigue

• tachypnea (rapid breathing) which is often laboured

• loss of appetite and weight loss

• chest pain

• fever

• gradual darkening of skin (blue skin)

What are some health hazards from natural dust?

Al Eskan disease - a lung disorder thought to be caused by exposure to very fine sand dust

Valley Fever - caused by the fungus C. immitis that lives in the desert soils of the southwestern U.S., C. immitis is dormant during long dry spells, then develops as a mold with long filametns that break off itno ariborne spores when it rains. The spores are swept into the air by disruption of the soil, such as during construction, farming, or an earthquake. Windstorms may also cause epidemics. In December 1977 a windstorm around Arvin, CA led to several hundred cases, including deaths

Describe the cause of the disaster at Lake Nyos

A landslide disturbed the CO2 rich water to rise up and out of the lake

Describe how future disaster are being prevented at Lake Nyos

several pipes vent the CO2 from the bottom of the lake to the surface

What does Mazuka mean?

swahili for “evil wind” - pocket of carbon dioxide-rich air that can be lethal to any human or animal life inside

What was the original source of gas at Mammoth Mountain?

its an active volcano

What is the geology of Mammoth Mountain?

it lies at the edge of the Long Valley Caldera, but has a distinct magma chamber - the volcano is still active with minor eruptions, the largest of which was a minor phreatic (steam) eruption 700 years ago

How does the gas monitoring program at Mammoth Mountain work?

researches evaluate changes in volcanic gas concentration

the concentration of CO2 gas in soil is being monitored on a continuous, year- round basis at a site at Horseshoe Lake

what gas killed trees north of Horseshoe Lake?

CO2

How much gas escapes near Horseshoe Lake each day?

100 tons

What is the usual concentration of CO2 in the air?

0.035%

what concentration of CO2 causes headaches and dizziness?

1%

approximately how many people died in the disaster of Lake Nyos?

~1800 people died of suffocation

Was there any warning for the villagers at Lake Nyos?

No. The gas was silent and odourless

Why was the gas at Lake Nyos white?

Water droplets formed on the surface of the gas

why was the gas-rich water at the bottom of Lake Nyos?

CO2-rich water is more dense than regular water

What was the original source of the CO2 at Lake Nyos?

underground magma, gases travelled up cracks

What is volcanic ash?

finely ground volcanic rock, volcanic glass

What happens to a jet engines that fly into volcanic ash?

it melts and coats the turbine blades, may shut down engines

describe the plate tectonic setting of the Aleutian Islands and Iceland - how are they different?

The Aleutian Islands are located in the northern part of the Pacific Ocean and are part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. They lie along the boundary between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate, where the Pacific Plate is subducting beneath the North American Plate (convergent plate)

Iceland is situated in the North Atlantic Ocean and is unique because it straddles the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which is the boundary between the Eurasian Plate and the North American Plate. Unlike the Aleutian Islands, Iceland is located on top of a divergent plate boundary.

The Aleutians are a subduction zone and Iceland is located along a divergent boundary

What impact does volcanic ash have on towns and health?

• cause air quality issues - can damage lungs

• may reduce sunlight

• can clog watercourses, sewage plants and various machinery

• since ash is heavy can cause structural damage to buildings

• ash is slippery - can make driving and walking difficult

How can a person protect themselves from volcanic ash?

• wear long-sleeved shirts and long pants

• use goggles to protect eyes

• wear glasses instead of contacts

• use a dust mask or hold a damp cloth over your face to assist in breathing

why is Katla in Iceland is considered a high risk for future large eruptions?

It has as history of producing large and explosive volcanic eruptions, and is overdue to explode

How is Katla being monitored?

• seismic monitoring

• GPS

• Gas emissions

• remote sensing

• visual observations

• weather radar

What is Vog

a hazy mixture of SO2 gas and aerosols

What are the health effects of Vog

• eye, nose, throat, and/or skin irritation

• coughing and/or phlegm

• chest tightness and/or shortness of breath

• increased susceptibility to respiratory ailments

• fatigue and/or dizziness

what is one indicator that a dormant volcano might be ‘reawakening?’

Earthquakes

what is the most widespread volcanic hazard?

volcanic ash

what happened to KLM flight in 1989

flew into ash cloud over Mt. Redoubt, all 4 engines stalled, managed to restart and landed safely in anchorage

What is a caldera? How are they formed?

large crater that forms as a result of a supervolcano eruption. Collapse following draining of the magma chamber

what is the diameter of Katla’s Caldera?

10 km

When did Katla last erupt? How much bigger was this eruption
than Eyjafjallajokull’s 2010 eruption?

1918, about 3x bigger. High potential for much larger eruptions.

What is a potential sign of pressure building in Katla’s magma
chamber? How is this being monitored?

upliftg on the surface, monitored by GPS

What may have caused lead poisoning in ancient Rome?

In ancient times, Rome used lead pipes to distribute water to people’s homes - scientific analysis showed that water traveling through these pipes had ~100x more lead than water from the local springs nearby the city.

Who are the Byzantines and what is their history?

Members of the Eastern Roman Empire (ERE)

The capital was Constantinople, the ERE fell in 1453 to the Ottoman Empire (from Turkey)

Describe a study of the bones of Byzantine workers in Jordan

• near the ancient Roman city of Phaino - one of the major mining and smelting centers of the Roman world

Results:

1. Cu content of the bones ranged from 2x to 18x the normal concetration for vertebrate bone

2. All the studied skeletons show joint damage, possibly from working in hard labour jobs

3. males commonly had higher Cu contents in their bones. this may be related to occupation.

what are several pathways that Cu can enter the body?

• inhalation of Cu-rich desert dust

• inhalation of by-products during smelting operations

• Cu-rich dust on hands, then eat or drink

• eating plants and animals that had high Cu levels

what are some health effects of overexposure to copper?

• chills, fever, pain

• metallic taste in mouth

• convulsion and weakness in muscles

• decreased liver function

• diarrhea

• jaundice

• anemia

• vomiting, nausea, abdominal pain, burning sensation

• no urine production

what is the “Legacy of Empires” that is present in Jordan?

preliminary analysis indicates significant bio-accumulation of Cu in plants and animals in this part of Jordan

Exposure of modern people is unlikely to approach that of the ancient miners, however there is no doubt that they live in an environment where Cu may persist in soils for thousands of years

Cu mining in the past may impact inhabitants today and in the future

why did the Byzantines have an interest in mining copper?

• to make coins - pay the military

• it is malleable - can be formed into tools or ornaments

• can be made into a sharp weapon

• Bronze = alloy of copper with arsenic or tin

what are the trade routes for copper and the uses of copper?

in the Lake superior regions copper was used to create jewelry, tools and weapons

The ancient copper work shop at Cahokia was used between 800
A.D. to 1400 A.D. Artifacts of silver, gold, alloys and arsenic bronze
have been found in or near the ancient mounds of the Eastern United
States, the former home of the Mississippian Culture

what are some food sources that could contain high copper for the indigenous people?

• wild rice - naturally concentrates Cu in its seeds, stems and roots

• fish

• mollusks

• worms

What are some possible effects of the elimination of excess CU?

• mood swings

• irritability

• depressions

• fatigue

• excitation

• difficulty focusing

• feeling out of control

What are some potential causes of Indian childhood cirrhosis?

• boiling milk in copper cookware in Ontario-Quebec

• genetic mutation with autosomal recessive inheritance (rules out Cu toxicity)

Why was uranium mined?

it was the cold war and bitches were trying to make nuclear weapons

What are some health effects of uranium exposure?

• kidney failure

• cancer

Describe the accident at Church Rock uranium mill, New Mexico

• more than 1,000 tons of radioactive mill waste

• 93 million gallons of acidic radioactive solutions

• flowed into the nearby Puerco River

• contaminated the drinking water supply on part of the Navajo nation

• larges radioactive accident in U.S. history

• local residents did not learn immediately of the toxic danger, the locals were accustomed to using the riverside for recreation

• residents who waded in the acidic water went to the hospital complaining of burning feet and were misdiagnosed with heat stroke

what are some ongoing health concerns for the Navajo Nation?

• respiratory issues

• kidney disease

• birth defects

What are some pathways for Cu to enter into the body?

Cu toxicity can occure from eating acidic foods coooked in uncoated copper cookware, mor from exposure to excess copper in drinking water or food sources

what’s the difference between hard and soft water?

hard water has minerals in it, soft does not (or very low anyways)

what is limescale and how does it form?

deposits of calcium carbonate, occurs when hard water is heated or sits for too long and evaporates

why should limescale be removed?

• causes dull or dry hair

• irritates sensitive skin

• may cause the growth of bacteria in drinking water pipes

• increased heating costs

• loss of energy in hot water systems

• low water pressure

• dirty looking clothes even if you wash them
  frequent replacement or repairs on appliances throughout the house

What impact does hard water have on human health?

• does not appear to have any negative affects

• can provide calcium and magneisum

• decreases risk of cardiovascular disease

• decreases risk of cerebrovascular disease

• decreases blood pressure

what two rivers provide calgary with its drinking water?

Elbow and Bow

what is the hardness of drinking water for north Calgary?

~165 mg/L CaCO3

what is the hardness of drinking water for south Calgary?

~217 mg/L CaCO3

How have children’s blood lead levels (BLL) changed over the past 40 years?

it has dramatically decreased

What are the two main sources of exposure of children to lead?

• leaded paint

• leaded gasoline

What is an activity that is known to cause high BLL in adults?

shooting guns at firing ranges

What impact does lead poisoning have on IQ?

it decreases it - ~4-5 point decrease

Where is most of lead in the human body found?

bones - more than 90%

what percent of U.S. homes have at least mod. hard water?

75%

what are the main minerals in hard water?

calcium and magnesium

where does hard water get the minerals from?

picks up minerals as it passes through rocks and soil

what are two reasons why soft water has a low mineral content?

either has not passes through rocks/soils yet or the rocks/soils it has passed through have little soluble minerals

what is the current recommended maximum for BLL in children?

5 μg/dL

what is the current average BLL of U.S. adults?

1.09 μg/dL

why was lead added to gasoline?

it reduce “engine knocking”, resulted in more powerful compression engines

what are some problems of lead in gasoline?

• growing evidence of environmental and health damage from Pb

• incompatibility of Pb with catalytic converters (since 1970)

what was the old and new drinking water sources for the town of Flint?

it originally came from Lake Huron then it switched to the Flint River, then switched back to Lake Huron cause Flint River sucked ass

How was drinking water treated at the Flint Water Plant?

sediment particles removed by adding a coagulant, particles sink to bottom of tanks, filtered through sand and then carbon, fluorine and chlorine added.

What caused lead to enter the drinking water at Flint?

corrosion control wasn’t added which lead to the corrosion of the iron water mains, and break-down of the protective scale on the lead service lines

What parts of the water system could lead be found in?

• services lines

• within a house: lead in brass (faucets and valves), lead in galvanized iron, lead solder in household pipes

How can lead affect brain development?

volume loss can occurs in the frontal lobe which controls decision-making, focus, planning, and judgement

How was the outbreak of Legionnaire’s disease at Flint related to the drinking water?

because there was no corrosion control, iron leached into the water in the water mains and reacted with the chlorine. there was not enough chlorine left to kill the legionnaire bacteria.

how long did the citizens of Flint drink lead-contaminated water for?

18 months

what does lead trick the body into thinkin it is?

calcium - which is essential for neurons to communicate

what bacteria was found in Flint’s drinking water not long after the swirch?

E. coli

Where could lead be found in Calgary drinking water systems?

in plumbing installed prior to 1989 - not very many houses impacted anymore tho (~550)

why was arsenic used throughout history as a poison

• a small amount (<1g) can cause death in a matter of hours

• relatively easy to obtain

• lacks odour or taste when mixed in food or drink

• overdose causes abdominal cramping and vomiting - hard to distinguish from unintentional food poisoning

What is the current WHO guideline for As in drinking water?

max As = 10 μg/L = 10 ppb

Describe the arsenic-related health epidemic in SE Asia

rural populations in West Bengal and Bangladesh changed their water supply from rivers/streams to groundwater (wells) to avoid pathogens, unfortunately there was much higher levels of As in groundwater

• skin lesions, skin - bladder - kidney - lung cancers, heart disease

• 20 million people exposed in Bangladesh; 300,00 currently have skin lesions and cancers

What are some ideas regarding why As is entering the drinking water in SE Asia

• oxidation of As-rich minerals from drawdown of water at well sites

• input of phosphate from irrigated fields + competitive adsorption

• microbial dissolution of As-rich minerals

Can arsenic be naturally occuring?

yes, in some rocks and sediments

why can’t Kettleman City use water from the California aqueduct

the town does not have a water treatment plant

what is the source of the arsenic in Kettleman City’s drinking water?

unknown

What determines the direction of groudwater flow?

hydraulic head - groundwater flows from areas of high hydraulic head to low hydraulic head

what is the effect of pumping wells on groundwater flow?

pumping wells draw groundwater towards themselves by creating a pressure gradient. The rate of groundwater flow will increase, particularly in the area adjacent to the well.

zone of saturation

a zone in which all the pores and rock fractures are filled with water.

water table

boundary between water-saturated ground and unsaturated ground - below the water table, rocks and soil are full of water

unconfined aquifer

where the rock is directly open at the surface of the ground and groundwater is directly recharged

hydraulic head

measurement of the height of a static water column above an arbitary elevation, usually expressed in meters

hydraulic gradient

hydraulic gradient between any two points is the slope of the hydraulic head between those points