Exam 3

Temperature regulation, endocrine functions, stress responses, other autonomic functions

Homeostasis self-regulating processes

Hypothalamus (with the limbic networks)

Homeostasis structures

Working memory

Combination of short-term memory and mental workspaceAuditory or Visual Mental workspaceVaries across individuals

Working memory structures

neocortex, particularly portions of the prefrontal cortex

Long-term memory

Intended for storage over extended period of time2 typesDeclarativeNon-declarative

episodic memory

recall of events and timelines for events

semantic memory

storage and recall of facts

hippocampus

Consolidating new learning or working memory into LTM

amygdala

Key structure for emotional episodic memories

reward circuit

Network for learning correct actions to receive an award and avoid punishmentsLinks emotional responses to behaviors and actionsDopamine, GABA, glutamate

reticular formation

Series of specialized nuclei in the core of brainstemIntermediary between brain, body, and outside world

Regulates sensory signals to the brainControls consciousness (arousal, alertness, circadian rhythms, and sleep-wake cycles)Controls motor functionsRegulates viscera

Reticular formation roles

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

Component of the reticular formation. Connections to brain and spinal cord

RAS functions

Cortical arousal. Cortical wakefulness. Consciousness

processes visual informationestablishes circadian rhythmsynthesizes melanin

What are three functions of the pineal gland?

Thymus

location of maturation for white blood cells important for immunity

Thyroid Gland

releases thyroid hormone by brain stimulation to regulate metabolism

thyroid follicles, follicular cells, parafollicular cells

What important structural components of the thyroid gland?

Parathyroid Cells

cells of thyroid gland responsible for regulating blood-calcium levels by secreting calcitonin into the blood

Parathyroid Glands

responsible for independently regulating blood-calcium levels by secreting parathyroid hormone

blood-calcium levels dropparathyroid hormone stimulates bone reabsorptioncalcium loss reduced in peecalcium levels rise in blood

The process of blood-calcium regulation by the parathyroid glands

Adrenal Glands

glands composed of cholesterol and lipids that sit on top of the kidneys

adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla

What are the two main layers of the adrenal glands?

Adrenal Cortex

outer and middle layers of the adrenal glands responsible for producing corticosteroids

mineralocorticoids

aldosterone

glucocorticoids

What are the five most important corticosteroids released by the adrenal cortex?

mineralocorticoids

regulate electrolyte balance

aldosterone

stimulates water retention in kidneys

glucocorticoids

regulate blood glucose levels cortisol - regulated bodily stress and damage androgens - primary adrenal sex steroids

Zona Glomerulosa

zona fasciculata

zona reticularis

\

What are the three main layers of the adrenal cortex?

Zona Glomerulosa

thin layer of round cell clusters responsible for secreting mineralcorticoids

Zona Fasciculata

thick middle layer of parallel cell arrangements responsible for secreting glucocorticoids and androgens

Zona Reticularis

narrow inner layer of cells responsible for secreting glucocorticoidsteroids and androgens

Pancreas

elongated, spongy gland primarily known as an exocrine digestive gland

Pancreatic Islets

endocrine cell clusters that secrete hormones important for blood-glucose regulation

Gonads

ovaries and testes that function as both endocrine and exocrine glands

for sex steroid secretion

How are the gonads considered endocrine glands?

Liver

produces blood regulating hormones

Kidneys

produces calcitrol and other blood regulating hormones

Heart

secretes peptide hormones that lower blood pressure

Stomach

secrete enteric hormones used to regulate digestion

Adipose Tissue

regulates carbohydrate and fat levels in body

Muscle contraction

\________ depends on actin /myosin- containing myofilaments.

Tropomyosin

\________ stiffens and stabilize the actin cores.

Sarcoplasmic reticulum

\________ regulates intracellular levels of calcium ions.

Troponin

\________ is a globular protein with 3 subunits.

Sarcoplasm

\________ contains lots of glycosomes and myoglobin.

Myoglobin

\________- red pigment that stores oxygen.

Myofibrils

\________ are made up of chains of sarcomeres.

Sarcomeres

\________ are made up of myofilaments.

Muscle cell

\________ contains 3 specialized structures: myofibrils, sarcoplasmic reticulum, and T tubules.

skeletal muscle fiber

Each \________ is a long cylindrical cell with multiple nuclei beneath its plasma membrane.

Muscle fibers

\________ are long (up to 30 cm) and are wide (up to ten times a body cell)

Sarcomeres

________ are the region between two successive Z disks, and is the smallest contractile unit of the muscle fiber.

Sarcolemma

plasma membrane of a muscle fiber

glycosomes

granules of stored glycogen

Myofibrils

Sarcoplasmic reticulum

T tubules

Muscle cell contains 3 specialized structures

Osteoarthritis

inflammation of a joint, articular cartilage dies and bones begin to grind on each other Leading cause: lack of physical activity and old age healing it: anti-inflammatories and joint replacements

Articular cartilage- hyaline cartilage with no perichondrium, reduces friction between bone Joint capsule (Fibrous membrane and synovial membrane) Fibrous Membrane- dense fibrous connective tissue, encloses the joint Synovial Joint- simple squamous epithelial tissue, makes synovial fluid Synovial fluid- nourishes articular cartilage, lubricates the joint, cushions the joint Meniscuis- guides movement Reinforcing Ligaments- muscles and tendons, stabilize the joint Bursa- sacs of synovial fluid that reduce friction (between tendons and joints)

What creates a synovial joint (TOP TO BOTTOM)

Fluid filled joint which is freely moveable

What is a synovial joint?

cartilaginous joints

joints held together by cartilage

Fibrous joints

two bones being held together by dense fibrous connective tissue

Rheumatoid Arthritis

An autoimmune disease -the body attacks the joint capsule leading to inflammation -typically we see this start at the hands treatment

Sprain

a tear or break in a ligament, (slow healing)

Strain

stretch/twist of a ligament

Two; Adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla

How many regions do the Adrenal Glands have?

Adrenal Cortex

Which adrenal gland is the outer region?

Adrenal Medulla

Which adrenal gland is the inner most region?

Atop each kidney

Where are the adrenal glands located?

Three: outer zone (mineralocorticoids), middle zone (glucocorticoids), and inner zone (androgens).

How many zones does the adrenal cortex have?

Aldosterone

What is the major mineralocorticoid?

Increases reabsorption of Na+Stimulates excretion of K+Stimulates excretion of hydrogen ions (H+) which helps maintain the body's acid-base balance (pH)

What does aldosterone do?

How do Spinal Nerves attach to the spinal cord?

Through the Ventral Root (If Efferent), or Dorsal Root (If Afferent).

All spinal nerves start out from the spinal cord as mixed nerves, then it separates into afferent and efferent fibers. If the branches are large enough, they are called ramus.

How do spinal nerves differentiate between Afferent and Efferent?

the basic principles of somatic motor pathways.

Somatic motor pathways includes all voluntary motor fibers outside CNS. Somatic Effectors are Skeletal Muscles.

Afferent

(sensory neurons): nerve fibers responsible for bringing sensory information from different parts of the body to the CNS.

Interneurons

central nodes of neural circuits, enabling communication between sensory or motor neurons and the CNS.

Spinal cord

gray matter surrounded by white matter.

Cell bodies

\________ are located just outside of the spinal cord in the dorsal root ganglion.

Brain

white matter surrounded by grey matter

White matter

mainly nerve fibres with their myelin sheaths

Grey matter

mainly nerve cell bodies and branching dendrites

Afferent (sensory neurons)

nerve fibers responsible for bringing sensory information from different parts of the body to the CNS

Interneurons

central nodes of neural circuits, enabling communication between sensory or motor neurons and the CNS

Efferent nerves

nerves that carry nerve impulses away from the CNS

Nervous System consists of

Central Nervous System (CNS)Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Brain and Spinal cord

the Central Nervous System (CNS) can be divided into

Somatic Nervous System and Autonomic Nervous System

the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) can be divided into

12

How many pairs of cranial nerves are there?

Afferent (sensory neurons)

Interneurons

Efferent nerves (motor neurons)

Types of Neurons

cerebrum, brainstem, and cerebellum

3 main parts of the Brain

skeletal muscles

Somatic Nervous System innervates

smooth muscles

Autonomic Nervous System innervates

Somatic Nervous System

one neuron between CNS and the target organ in the \_____ nervous system

Autonomic Nervous System

two neurons between CNS and the target organ

acetylcholine

Somatic Nervous System chemical transmitter

acetylcholine or norepinephrine

Autonomic Nervous System chemical transmitter

endocrine system

Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells.

Glands

Organ that produces/releases a substance of secretion

exocrine glands

secrete chemical substances into ducts that lead either to other organs or out of the body

endocrine glands

Glands of the endocrine system that release hormones into the bloodstream