(PSYC 2301) Final Exam

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

A psychologist:

has a doctoral degree in psychology, takes 4-5 years of graduate work plus an additional year of interning in a mental health facility; cannot prescribe medications.

A psychiatrist

has a medical degree, but specializes in abnormal behavior and psychotherapy; can prescribe medication.

William James

performed the first experiment on the mind; theorized about the “stream of consciousness” and the adaptation of human thoughts, which developed into functionalism.

Biological Approach

an approach to psychology focusing on the body, especially the brain and nervous system.

Behavioral Approach

an approach to psychology focusing on the scientific study of observable behavioral responses and their environmental determinants.

Psychodynamic (Psychoanalytic) Approach

an approach to psychology focusing on unconscious thought, the conflict between biological drives (such as drive for sex) and society’s demands, and early childhood family experiences.

Humanistic Approach

an approach to psychology focusing on a person’s positive qualities, the capacity for positive growth, and the freedom to choose one’s destiny.

Biological psychologists …

believe the brain is the physical basis of all thoughts and emotions.

Behavioral psychologists (behaviorists) …

don’t focus on thoughts and feelings.

Psychodynamic psychologists …

believe that impulses toward aggression and sex influence the way people think, feel, and behave; emphasizing emotions as a source of motivation for behavior.

Humanistic psychologists …

believe that people have the ability to control their own lives and are not controlled by the environment; innate drive toward self-actualization molds behavior.

Cognitive Approach

an approach to psychology focusing on the mental processes involved in knowing: how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think, and solve problems.

Cognitive psychologists …

believe the mind resides inside the brain and its processes give the ability to remember, make decisions, plan, set goals, and be creative.

Evolutionary Approach

an approach to psychology focusing on evolutionary ideas such as adaptation, reproduction, and natural selection as the basis for explaining specific human behaviors.

Evolutionary psychologists …

believe that looking for behavioral clues in primates helps to better approach human behavior.

Sociocultural Approach

an approach to psychology focusing on the ways in which social and cultural environments influence behavior.

Sociocultural psychologists …

believe that understanding a person’s behavior includes the cultural context of the behavior.

Scientific Method

the ongoing cycle of observing behavior, forming hypotheses, testing hypotheses, interpreting data, and communicating findings to others.

Experimental Group

the participants in an experiment who receive the drug or other treatment under study; those who are exposed to the change that the independent variable represents.

Control Group

the participants in an experiment who are as much like the experimental group as possible and who are treated in every way like the experimental group except for a manipulated factor, the independent variable.

Independent Variable

a manipulated experimental factor; the variable that the experimenter changes to see what its effects are.

Dependent variable

the outcome; the variable that may change in an experiment in response to changes in the independent variable.

External Validity

the degree to which an experimental design actually reflects the real-world issues it is supposed to address.

Internal Validity

the degree to which changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable.

Deception

violates informed consent; ethics in research require the participant have the right to withdraw from the study after it is revealed.

Informed Consent

participants in research must know what their participation will involve and what risks might develop.

Debriefing

informing participants of the study of its purpose and methods used after the study has been completed.

Naturalist Setting (Naturalistic Observations)

a real world setting.

Lab Setting (Laboratory Observations)

an artificial world setting; controlled setting.

Representative Sample

a portion of a population, which yields information to generalize a population and all subgroups; cannot be made up of one race, gender, etc.

Random Assignment

the assignment of participants to experimental groups by chance, to reduce the likelihood that a study’s results will be due to preexisting differences between groups.

Experimental Method

determines cause and effect relationships via dividing participants into experimental and control groups.

Placebo

a substance given to participants that has no effect on behavior, but the participants are not aware of the lack of effects.

Correlational Research

research that examines the relationship between variables in order to find out whether and how two variables change together.

Positive Correlation (+r)

when a variable(s) change(s) or move(s) in the same direction as another variable(s); directly proportional.

Negative Correlation (-r)

when a variable(s) change(s) or move(s) in the opposite direction as another variable(s); inversely proportional.

Neuron

the part of the brain that controls the information processing function; consists of a cell body, axons, and dendrites.

Axon

the part of a neuron that carries information away from the nucleus.

Dendrite

the part of a neuron that receives information.

Synapse

the part of the neuron that releases neurotransmitters.

Action Potential

a change to a neuron’s internal state in which an impulse travels from the dendrites down the axon.

Resting Potential

when a neuron is inactive.

Neurotransmitters

continuously send messages across the synaptic gap to the dendrites of a neuron.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord.

Hypothalamus

a small forebrain structure, located just below the thalamus, that monitors three pleasurable activities --eating, drinking, and sex-- as well as emotion, stress, and reward, and regulates the pituitary gland.

Cerebellum

consists of two rounded structures that extend from the rear of the hindbrain; plays an important role in motor coordination.

Cerebral Cortex

part of the forebrain, the outer layer of the brain, responsible for the most complex mental functions, such as thinking and planning.

Medulla

begins where the spinal cord enters the skull; controls many vital functions, such as breathing and heart rate, and regulates reflexes.

Brain Stem

the stemlike brain area that includes much of the hindbrain (excluding the cerebellum) and the midbrain; it connects with the spinal cord at its lower end and then extends upward to encase the reticular formation in the midbrain.

Wernicke’s Area

the area of the brain associated with language comprehension; damage to this region causes problems in comprehending language, not in the production of language.

Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT or CT Scan)

produces 3D images obtained from x-rays of the head that are assembles into a composite image by a computer; provides information about the location and extent of brain damage.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

produces images of the brain’s correlational activity by tracking blood oxygen levels as they change in response to activity in the brain.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

creates a strong magnetic field around a person’s body and uses radio waves to construct images; provides very clear pictures of the brain’s interior via tracking the hydrogen in the brain.

Positron-Emission Tomography (PET Scan)

based on metabolic changes in the brain related activity; provides information about brain activity via tracking glucose levels in the brain and sending the information to a computer for analysis.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

the nerves that are connected to the brain and spine.

Sympathetic Nervous System

the part of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for action and is involved with stress, adrenaline, fear, and anticipation.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body.

Pituitary Gland

a pea-sized gland just beneath the hypothalamus that controls growth and regulates other glands; the “Master Gland.”

Endocrine System

the body system consisting of a set of glands that regulate the activities of certain organs by releasing their chemical products into the bloodstream.

Learning

a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience.

Classical Extinction

a conditioned response is weakened by presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus.

Operant Extinction

the decrease of a behavior due to the removal of reinforcement.

Classical Generalization

conditioned responses appearing after various new neutral stimuli are introduced that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Operant Generalization

when the stimulus “sets the occasion” for the response.

Classical Conditioning

helps to explain involuntary behavior: habits

Operant Conditioning

the consequences of a behavior change the probability of that behavior’s reoccurrence.

Positive Reinforcement

when a behavior is followed by a rewarding consequence; a rewarding stimulus is “added.”

Negative Reinforcement

when a behavior is followed by a rewarding consequence; an adverse stimulus is “removed.”

Positive Punishment

when a behavior is followed by an adverse consequence; an adverse stimulus is “added.”

Negative Punishment

when a behavior is followed by an adverse consequence; a rewarding stimulus is “removed.”

Behavior Modification

the use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior.

Observational Learning

learning that involves observing and imitating another’s behavior.

Attention

the first step in observational learning; necessary for learning a new behavior.

Retention

the second step in observational learning; the learned behavior must be stored in memory.

Motor Reproduction

the third step in observational learning; the ability to recreate the behavior.

Reinforcement

the fourth step in observational learning; the reward for complete replication of behavior.

Encoding

transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory.

Storage

the retention of information over time and how this information is represented in memory.

Retrieval

the memory process that occurs when information that was retained in memory comes out of storage.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

limited-capacity memory system in which information is usually retained only for as long as 30 seconds unless the individual uses strategies to retain it longer.

Working Memory (STM)

a combination of components, including STM and attention, that allow individuals to hold information temporarily as they perform cognitive tasks; a kind of mental workbench on which the brain manipulates and assembles information to guide understanding, decision-making, and problem-solving.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

a relatively permanent type of memory that stores huge amounts of information for a long time.

Explicit (Declarative) LTM Memory

the conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts or events and information that can be verbally communicated.

Implicit (Nondeclarative) LTM Memory

memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without a conscious recollection of that experience.

Episodic Memory

the retention of information about the where, when, and what of life’s happenings--that is, how individuals remember life’s events.

Semantic Memory

a person’s knowledge about the world, including his/her areas of expertise; general knowledge, such as things learned in school, and everyday knowledge.

Encoding Failure

when the information learned was never entered into long-term memory.

Interference Theory

the theory that people forget not because memories are lost from storage, but because other information gets in the way of what they want to remember.

Chunking

grouping items into a unit that exceeds the 7±2 memory span, remembering them as single units.

Elaboration

the formation of a number of different connections around a stimulus at any given level of memory encoding.

Study Organization

involves reviewing notes, arranging information, and experimenting with different study techniques.

Study Encoding

includes paying attention, processing the information, elaborating on key points, using imagery and chunking, and practicing it often

Study Rehearsal

involves rewriting notes, self-testing, asking specific questions about learned material, and maintaining a healthy brain.

Study Retrieval

involves using cues to aid in remembering information and maintaining a calm state.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities resulting from prenatal exposure to alcohol.

Assimilation

incorporating a new experience into an existing schema.

Piaget believed that children…

actively construct their cognitive world as they go through a series of stages, using schemas to make sense of their experiences.

Sensorimotor Stage

Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development, from birth to about 2 years old, during which infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with motor (physical) actions

Concerning fetal alcohol syndrome, …

there is no known level of alcohol consumption that will not cause FAS.