Anatomy and Physiology U2 Exam

Fibrous Joint

Adjacent bones strongly connected by connective tissue

Example: Sutures”sewing together” Only located between bones of the skull

Gomphosis “bolting together” Binds teeth to bony sockets

Syndesmosis- bones connected by ligament (articulation between tibia & fibula)

Cartilaginous Joint

Slightly movable joint. Bones are entirely joined by hyaline or fibrocartilage

Example: Synchondrosis → Rigid cartilaginous bridge between two articulating bones: connection between ribs and the sternum and epiphyseal cart. which connects diaphysis to epiphysis in a growing long bone

Synovial Joint

Freely movable joint (gliding, hinge, ball and socket, saddle, pivot). Joins bones or cartilage with fibrous joint capsule.

Found between bones that move against each other (shoulder, hip, knee). The outer boundary of synovial cavity and the bones’ articulating surfaces.

Example: Monaxial - movement in one plane (elbow, ankle)

Biaxial- movement in two planes (ribs, wrist)

Triaxial- movement in three planes (shoulder, hip)

Synarthrosis

Joints fused together, no movement or nearly immobile

Amphiarthrosis

Slightly moves, slightly does not move

Diarthroses

Freely movable joint

How many bones does the skull have?

**The skull has 14 facial bones and 8 cranial bones**

How many bones does the vertebral column have?

The vertebral column has 26 bones

How many bones does the ribs have?

The ribs have 26 bones. 12 rib pairs, 24 ribs, 1 sternum

How many bones does the axial skeleton have?

The axial skeleton has 80 bones.

How many bones does the appendicular skeleton have?

The appendicular has 126 bones.

How many bones does the skeleton have total?

The skeleton has 206 bones total.

Describe the sagittal suture

**Dense fibrous connective tissue. Parietal bones meet occipital bones posteriorly** 

Describe the coronal suture

**Parietal bones meet the frontal bone anteriorly**

Describe the lambdoid suture

**Dense fibrous connective tissue. Parietal and temporal bones meet occipital bone posteriorly**

Describe the squamous suture

**Connects the temporal squama with the lower border of the parietal**

What is the function of the skull’s sinuses?

**resonating chamber for the voice**

**decrease the weight of the skull by containing air**

**help warm and moisten inhaled air**

**act as shock absorbers in trauma**

**possibly control the immune system**

Describe the location of the **frontal sinuses**

Sinuses in the frontal cranium 

Describe the location of the sphenoidal sinuses

Sinuses in the sphenoid bone, close to the optic nerves; an infection here can damage vision

Describe the location of the maxillary sinuses

Largest pair of sinuses forming cavity in maxilla

Describe the location of the ethmoidal air cells

Sinuses in the ethmoid

What are true ribs?

Ribs 1-7 that attach to the sternum in the front

What are false ribs?

Ribs 8, 9, and 10 that don’t connect to the sternum

What are floating ribs?

11 & 12 ribs are half size, __**do not connect to costal cartilage**__ and do not reach the front of the body

Outline the process of bone (fracture) repair.

1. **Hematoma forms: Bleeding produces a clot**
2. **Fibrocartilaginous callus forms: cartilage/collagen spine bone**
3. **Bony callus forms: Spongy bone replaces cartilage/collagen (endochondral ossification)**
4. **Bone remodeling occurs: Compact bone**

**What is an open fracture?**

**When bone ends penetrate the skin**

What is a closed fracture?

**When bone ends do not penetrate the skin.**

What is an incomplete fracture?

**If the bone is not broken through**

What is a complete fracture?

**If the bone breaks through completely**

What is a spiral fracture?

**Excessive twisting forces are applied to a bone** 

What is a displaced fracture?

**The bone ends are out of normal alignment**

What is a nondisplaced fracture?

**The bone ends retain their normal position**

What is a comminuted fracture?

Bone fragments into three or more pieces

What is a compression fracture?

The bone is crushed

What is a greenstick fracture?

**Bone breaks incompletely; only one side of the shaft breaks, the other side bends**

What is an epiphyseal fracture?

**Epiphysis separates from the diaphysis along the epiphyseal plate**

Identify the bones (and markings) of the axial skeleton.

\
**Skull bones (22). 8 cranial bones; 14 facial bones**

**Accessory skull bones (7). 1 hyoid bone + 6 auditory ossicles** 

**Vertebral Column (26). 26 vertebrae**

**Ribcage (25 bones). 24 ribs (12 pairs); 1 sternum.**

**1-7 true rib pairs, 8-12 false rib pairs, 11-12 floating rib pairs**

What is compact bone?

Compact bone has osteon, which forms rings around a central Haversian canal that contains blood vessels. The perforating canal connect osteons. It stresses from fewer angles increase compact bone's density.

Osteons are like long, thin straws that travel the length of bone, parallel to one another.

Bone is very strong in the long axis, lesser in perpendicular direction.

What is spongy bone?

The spongy layer is strong and lightweight found on the inside of the bone. Spongy bones are made up of trabeculae, a mesh-like network. It forms where less stress occurs and reduces weight of bones. It protects bone marrow, and the bones contain marrow cavities yellow and red. Yellow marrow is fatty and offers backup energy reserves. Red marrow is important for blood cell formation and has mature & immature RBC's, WBC's & stem cells.

Distinguish between compact and spongy bone.

Compact bone has osteon, which forms rings around a central Haversian canal that contains blood vessels. The perforating canal connect osteons. It stresses from fewer angles increase compact bone's density. Osteons are like long, thin straws that travel the length of bone, parallel to one another. Bone is very strong in the long axis, lesser in perpendicular direction.

The spongy layer is strong and lightweight found on the inside of the bone. Spongy bones are made up of trabeculae, a mesh-like network. It forms where less stress occurs and reduces weight of bones. It protects bone marrow, and the bones contain marrow cavities yellow and red. Yellow marrow is fatty and offers backup energy reserves. Red marrow is important for blood cell formation and has mature & immature RBC's, WBC's & stem cells.

Explain the process of bone remodeling. Include the roles played by calcitonin and parathyroid hormone. Identify the glands which produce these hormones.

Bone remodeling recycles and renews organic and mineral components of bone matrix and happens throughout life. It can replace matrix but leaves bone as whole unchanged/or change shape (internal architecture, or mineral content). Osteocytes remove and replace calcium salts.

Osteoclasts/osteoblasts remain active, even after being closed.

Calcitonin is a thyroid gland that inhibits osteoclast activity. It promotes calcium loss by kidneys and decreases blood calcium ion concentrations

Parathyroid glands stimulates osteoclast (and osteoblast) activity. It increases blood calcium ion concentrations

What is the process of endochondral ossification?

Endochondral Ossification: bone replaces hyaline cartilage model


1. A bone collar forms around the diaphysis of the hyaline cartilage model
2. Cartilage calcifies in the center of the diaphysis and then develops cavities
3. The periosteal bud invades the internal cavities and spongy bone forms
4. The diaphysis elongates and medullary cavity forms 
5. The epiphyses ossifies

Example: long bones

What is the process of Intramembranous ossification?

Intramembranous bone formation: Mesenchymal tissue to bone tissue 


1. Mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoblast
2. Osteoblasts secrete matrix
3. Osteoblasts surrounded by matrix become osteocytes trapped in lacunae
4. Spicules form and unite to form trabeculae of spongy bone surrounded by endosteum
5. Remodeling of spongy bone forms compact bone with periosteum around outer surface

Example: Flat bones (parietal, occipital, frontal) clavicle, facial bones

Identify the functions of the skeletal system.

Support for body (structures hang or rest on bones)

Protection for organs and soft tissue

Movement because muscles attach

Storage for minerals (calcium phosphorus)

Hematopoiesis (red bone marrow), which forms WBC, RBC, platelets

What is a long bone?

A long bone is longer than wide (diaphysis shaft, epiphysis ends)

Example: Humerus, Ulna, Radius, Tibia, Fibula, Femur, Metacarpals, Metatarsals, Phalanges

What is a short bone?

A short bone is cube shaped, more spongy bone than compact bone

Example: Carpals (scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, hamate, pisiform, capitate, trapezoid, and trapezium), Tarsals (calcaneus, talus, navicular, cuboid, and cuneiform)

What is a flat bone?

A flat bone is 2 layers of compact bone with spongy bone inbetween

Example: frontal, parietal, occipital, sternum, clavicle, ribs, scapula

What is an irregular bone?

Irregular bones are bones that can’t be grouped as long, short, flat, or sesamoid

Example: vertebrae, ilium, ischium, pubis

Describe the function of compact bone

Forms the long axis of the bone/shaft

Describe the function of the spongy bone

Forms the internal layer of the long boneD

Describe the function of articular cartilage

Point of connection, covers the ends of most bones at movable joints. Makes it easy to move and glide for less friction

Describe the function of periosteum

Functions as double layered membrane covering the outside surface of the bone except joint surfaces

Describe the function of endosteum

Endosteum lines inner bone surface (trabaculae of spongy bone)

Describe the function of the medullary cavity

The medullary cavity is the marrow cavity. Contains yellow marrow (fat) in adults

Describe the function of yellow marrow

Yellow marrow replaces red marrow for fat tissue in adults. Inactive in the formation of red blood cells.

Describe the function of red marrow

Red marrow forms WBC, RBC, platelets

Describe the function of epiphysis

Epiphysis is where the bone ends. It articulates/connects with other bones

Describe the function of the diaphysis

The diaphysis functions as the shaft of the bone.

Describe the function of epiphyseal line

The epiphyseal line is cartilage present at the junction of the diaphysis and epiphysis; a remnant of the epiphyseal plate.

Describe the function of the nutrient foramen

The nutrient foramen acts as openings for blood vessels to go through to provide nutrients. Leads into a nutrient canal that extends into medullary cavity

Describe A+P of osteon

Osteocytes in lacunae, What the compact bone is made out of, roughly cylindrical structures 

Describe A+P of calcified matrix

67% calcium phosphate, 33% osteoid

Describe A+P of central (Haversian) canal

center of the osteon; contains blood vessels and a nerve fiber

Describe A+P of the perforating canal

Lies at right angles to the long axis of the bone and connect the blood and nerve supply of the medullary cavity to the central canals

Describe A+P of osteocytes

Maintain matrix day to day, repair damage. mature bone cells live in lacunae, connect by cytoplasmic extensions in canaliculi, Do NOT divide, do NOT secrete matrix

Describe A+P of canaliculi

connects lacunae

Describe A+P of osteoblasts

In bone, produce bone matrix, secrete osteoid: ground substance + collagen, osteoid then calcifies into mature bone matrix, located in cellular layer of periosteum, and endosteum, mature into osteocytes once surrounded by matrix

Describe A+P of concentric lamellae

Concentric layers of bony matrix with collagen fibers in each layer running in opposite direction, Their function is to be in layered arrangements and fiber orientation that allow optimal weight bearing and even weight transfer. This is found in the rings of bony matrix in each osteon.

Describe A+P of osteoclasts

Giant, multinucleate cells, found in endosteum, they resorb (dissolve) bone matrix by Acids and enzymes in order to release stored Ca++ and Pi into blood

Describe A+P of osteogenic (osteoprogenitor) cells

Bone stem cells, differentiate (mature) into other bone cells, located in endosteum and periosteum, and assist in fracture repair

Describe A+P of lacuna

Where the osteocyte is located

Describe A+P of bone lining cells

Flat cells on bone surfaces where bone remodeling isn’t happening; helps main matrix

Describe the A+P of trabeculae

Network of bone tissue that makes up the spongy bone

Describe A+P of mesenchymal cells

Mesenchymal stem cells come from the bone marrow, migrate to sites of injury, promote bone regeneration and can inhibit immune responses. In vitro, MSCs can differentiate into osteoblasts, adipose cells and cartilage cells.

Process

Any bony prominence

Spine

Sharp, slender, often pointed projection

Condyle

Rounded articular projection; often articulates with matching fossa

Tubercle

Small rounded projection/process

Tuberosity

Large rounded projection (may be rough)

Trochanter

Very large blunt irregularly shaped process (ex: on femur)

Trochlea

a smooth, grooved articular process shaped like a pulley

Crest

Narrow ridge of bone, usually prominent

Line

Narrow ridge of bone, less prominent than crest

Head

Bony expansion carried on a narrow neck

Fossa

Shallow basinlike depression in a bone (often articular surface)

Facet

Smooth, nearly flat joint surface

Neck

Narrow connection

Fissure

Narrow, slitlike opening

Foramen

Rounded/oval opening through a bone

Meatus (canal)

Canal-like passagewayG

Groove

Furrow

Ramus

an extension of a bone making an angle with the rest of the structure

Notch

indentation at the edge of a structure

Describe the process of bone growth at the epiphyseal plate.

Growth plates occur between the diaphysis and epiphyses at the metaphysis; eventually growth plates disappear (due to puberty & sex hormones increase with bone growth); begin at age 3, timing of closure is key to determining adult size, avoid heavy weights when young to avoid shortening stature due to crushed epi. cartilages.

Distinguish between the epiphyseal plate and epiphyseal line and include the roles played by human growth hormone, estrogen, and testosterone. Identify the glands where these hormones are produced.

Epiphyseal Plate separates epiphysis from diaphysis; On the shaft side of the metaphysis, osteoblasts continuously invade the cartilage and replace it with bone. \n \n Epiphyseal Plate former location of epiphyseal cartilage marked by a line; remains after growth has ended

Estrogen and Testosterone stimulate osteoblast activity and the synthesis of bone matrix. Estrogens stimulate epiphyseal closure earlier than androgens. \n \n Pituitary glands for growth stimulates osteoblast activity & synthesis of bone matrix. Thyroid hormones modulate the activity of growth hormone, ensuring that the skeleton has proper proportions as it grows.

Describe the plane synovial joint

GLIDING, flattened faces with limited motion

Example: Acromioclavicular and clavicular sternal joints, intercarpal and intertarsal joints, vertebrocostal joints, sacro-iliac joints

Describe the hinge synovial joint

FLEXION and EXTENSION

Example: Elbow joint, knee joint, ankle joint, interphalangeal joint

Describe the ball and socket synovial joint

ROTATION, ADDUCTION/ABDUCTION, FLEXION/EXTENSION

Greatest range of motion

Example: shoulder joint, hip joint

Describe the saddle synovial joint

ADDUCTION/ABDUCTION, FLEXION/EXTENSION.

Provides more stability to the bones and more flexibility than a hinge or gliding joint

Example: First carpometacarpal joint

Describe the condylar synovial joint

ADDUCTION/ABDUCTION, FLEXION/EXTENSION

Example: radiocarpal joint, metacarpophalangeal joints 2-5, metatarsophalangeal joints