Psychology Exam 1

Chapters 1,2 and 14

American Psychological Association

Professional organization representing psychologist in the united states

Behavioralism

Focus on observing and controlling behavior

Biopsychology

Study of how biology influences behavior

Biopsychosocial model

Perspective that asserts that biology, psychology, and social factors interact to determine an individual’s health

Clinical Psychology

Area of psychology that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behaviour

Cognitive Psychology

Study of cognitions, or thoughts, and their relationship to experiences and action

counseling psychology

Area of psychology that focuses on improving emotional, social, vocational, and other aspects of the lives of psychologically healthy individuals

Developmental psychology

scientific study of development across a lifespan

Dissertation

Long research paper about research that was conducted as a part of the candidates doctoral training

Empirical method

Method for acquiring knowledge based on observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based only on forms of logical argument or previous authorities

Forensic psychology

Area of psychology that applies the science and practice of psychology to issues within and related to the justice system.

Functionalism

Focused on how mental activities helped an organism adapt to its environment.

Humanism

perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans

Introspection

Process by which someone examines their own conscious experience in an attempt to break it into its component parts

Ology

“study of”

Personality Psychology

Study of patterns thoughts and behaviours that make each individual unique

PhD

Doctoral degree

Postdoctoral training program

allows young scientists to further develop their research programs and broaden their research skills under the supervision of other professionals in the field.

Psychoanalytic theory

Focus on the role of the unconscious in affecting conscious behavior.

Psychology

scientific study of mind

PsyD

Doctoral degree less emphasis on research oriented skills

Sport and exercise psychology

area of psychology that focuses on the interactions between mental and emotional factors and physical performance in sports, exercise and other activities

Structuralism

Understanding the conscious experience through introspection

Archival research

method of research using past records or data sets to answer various research questions, or to search for interesting patterns or relationships

attrition

reduction in number of research participants as some drop out of the study over time

cause and effect relationship

changes in one variable cause the changes in other variables; can be determined only through an experimental research design

Clinical or case study

Observational research study focusing on one or a few people

confirmation bias

tendency to ignore evidence that disproves ideas or beliefs

confounding variable

Unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables of interest, often giving the false impression that changes in one variable causes changes in the other variable, when, in actuality, the outside factor causes changes in both variable

control group

serves as a basis for comparison and controls for chance factors that might influence the results of the study- by holding such factors constant across groups so that the experimental manipulation is the only difference between groups.

correlation

relationship between two or more variables; when two variables are correlated, one variable changes as the other does

correlation coefficient

number from -1 to +1, indicating the strength and direction of the relationship between variables, and usually represented by r

cross- sectional research

compares multiple segments of a population at a single time

debriefing

when an experiment involved deception, participants are told complete and truthful information about the experiment at its conclusion

deception

purposefully misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment

deductive reasoning

results are predicted based on general premise

dependent variable

variable that the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had

double-blind study

experiment in which both the researchers and the participants are blind to group assignments

empirical

grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing

experimental group

group designed to answer the research question; experimental manipulation is the only difference between the experimental and control groups, so any differences between the two are due to experimental manipulation

experimenter bias

researcher expectations skew the results of the study

fact

objective and verifiable observation, established using evidence collected through empirical research

falsifiable

able to be disproven by experimental results

generalize

inferring that the results for a sample apply to the larger population

hypothesis

tentative and testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables

Illusory correlation

seeing relationship between two things when in reality no such relationship exists.

independent variable

variable that is influenced or controlled by the experimenter; in a sound experimental study, the independent variable is the only important difference between the experimental and control group

inductive reasoning

conclusions drawn from observations

informed consent

process of informing a research participant about what to expect during an experiment, any risks involved, and the implications of the research, and then obtaining the person’s consent to participate.

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee

review proposals for research involving animals

Institutional Review Board

Review proposals involving human participants

Inter-rater reliability

Measure of agreement among observers on how they record and classify a particular event

Longitudinal Research

Studies in which the same group of individuals is surveyed or measured repeatedly over an extended period of time

naturalistic observation

observation of behavior in its natural setting

negative correlation

two variables change in different directions, with one becoming larger as the other becomes smaller, a negative correlation is not the same thing as no correlation

Observer bias

when observations may be skewed to align with observer expectations

operational definition

description of what actions and operations will be used to measure the dependent variables and manipulate the independent variables

Opinion

Personal judgements, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate

participant

subjects of phycological research

peer-reviewed journal article

article read by several other scientists (usually anonymously) with expertise in the subject matter, who provide feedback regarding the quality of the manuscript before it is acceptednfor publication

placebo effect

people's expectations or beliefs influencing or determining their experience in a given situation

Population

Overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in

positive correlation

two variables change in the same direction, both becoming either larger or smaller

random assignment

method of experimental group assignment in which all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group

random sample

subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

reliability

consistency and reproducibility of a given result

replicate

repeating an experiment using different samples to determine the research’s reliability

sample

subset of individuals selected from the larger population

single-blind study

experiment in which the researcher knows which participants are in experimental group and which are in the control group

statistical analysis

determines how likely any difference between experimental groups is due to chance

survey

List of questions to be answered by research participants

theory

well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena

validity

accuracy of a given result in measuring what it is designed to measure.

Alarm reaction

first stage of the general adaptation syndrome; characterized as the body’s immediate physiological reaction to a threatening situation or some other emergency (fight or flight)

Asthma

psychophysiological disorder in which the airways of the respiratory system become obstructed, leading to great difficulty expelling air from lungs

Biofeedback

Stress-reduction technique using electronic equipment to measure a person’s involuntary activity and provide feedback to help the person gain a level of voluntary control over these processes

Cardiovascular disorders

disorders that involve the heart and blood circulation system

coping

mental or behavioral efforts used to manage problems relating to stress, including its cause and the unpleasant feelings and emotions it produced

cortisol

stress hormone released by the adrenal glands when encountering a stressor, helps to provide a boost of energy, thereby preparing the individual to take action

Daily hassles

minor irritations and annoyances that are apart of everyday life

Distress

bad from of stress; usually high in intensity; often leads to exhaustion, fatigue, feeling burned out; associated with erosions in performance and health

eustress

good form of stress; usually high in intensity; often leads to exhaustion, fatigue, feeling burned out; associated with erosions in performance and health

fight or flight response

set of physiological reactions that occur when an individual encounters a perceived threat; these reactions are produced by activation of the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system.

Flow

state involving intense engagement in an activity; usually is experienced when participating in creative, work and leisure endeavors

General adaptation syndrome

Hans Selye’s three-stage model of the body’s physiological reactions to stress and the process of stress adaptation; alarm reaction, stage of resistance, and stage of exhaustion

Happiness

enduring state of mind consisting of joy, contentment, and other positive emotions; the sense that one’s has meaning and value

health psychology

subfield of psychology devoted to studying psychological influences on health, illness, and how people respond when they become ill

Heart disease

several types of adverse heart conditions, including those that involve the heart’s arteries or valves or those involving the inability of the heart to pump enough blood to meet the body’s needs; can include heart attacks and stroke

Hypertension

High blood pressure

Hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis

Set of structures found in both the limbic system (hypothalamus) and the endocrine system that regulate many of the body’s physiological reactions to stress through the release of hormones

Immune system

various structures, cells, and mechanisms that protect the body from foreign substances that can damage the body’s tissues and organs

Immunosuppression

decreased effectiveness of the immune system

job burnout

general sense of emotion exhaustion and cynicism in relation to one’s job; consists of three dimensions; exhaustion, depersonalization, and sense of diminished personal accomplishment

job strain

work situation involving the combination of excessive job demands and workload with little decision making latitude or job control

Lymphocytes

white blood cells that circulate in the body’s fluid and are especially important in the body’s immune response

negative affectivity

tendency to experience distressed emotional states involving ange, contempt, disgust, guilt, fear, and nervousness

optimism

tendency toward a positive outlook and positive expectations

perceived control

peoples belief’’ concerning their capacity to influence and shape outcomes in their lives

positive affect

state or a trait that involves pleasurable engagement with the environment, the dimensions of which include happiness, joy

positive psychology

scientificarea of study seeking to identify and promote those qualities that lead to happy, and fulfilled lives