AP Psych

Nature vs. Nuture

Related to whether heredity or the environment most impacts human psychological development

Chromosome

a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes.

How many chromosomes do humans have (assuming no genetic abnormality)?

46 (23 from the mother, and 23 from the father)

DNA

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

Genes

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein

Humane Genome

The complete instructions for making a human organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that human's chromosomes.

Monozygotic Twins

identical twins formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo

Dizygotic Twins

twins who are produced when two separate ova are fertilized by two separate sperm at roughly the same time

Heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

Molecular Genetics

the study of the molecular structure and function of genes

Molecular Behavior Genetics

the further study of how the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behavior

Epigenetics

the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

Natural Selection

the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Mutation

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change

Biosocial Psychology

Genes, environment and our culture all combine to influence our development.

The Nervous System

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

The Endocrine System

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Nerves

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

Sensory Neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

Motor Neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

Peripheral Nervous System

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

Central Nervous System

brain and spinal cord

Somatic Nervous System

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

Autonomic Nervous System

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart)

Sympathetic Nervous System

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

Parasympathetic Nervous System

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

Brain

The mass of nerve tissue that is the main control center of the nervous system; comprised of the cortex and subcortical structures carrying out various functions

Spinal Cord

Nerves that run up and down the length of the back and transmit most messages between the peripheral nervous system and brain

Reflex

Sensory neurons send signals, interneurons receive and communicate to motor neurons, motor neurons connect to body and direct movement

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Pituitary Gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

Thyroid Gland

produces hormones that regulate metabolism, body heat, and bone growth

Parathyroid

in the neck; controls the calcium levels in your body, and normals the bone growth

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.

Pancreas

An organs in the abdominal cavity with two roles. The first is an exocrine role: to produce digestive enzymes and bicarbonate, which are delivered to the small intestine via the pancreatic duct. The second is an endocrine role: to secrete insulin and glucagon into the bloodstream to help regulate blood glucose levels.

Testis

male reproductive organ that produces sperm and hormones

Ovaries

Glands that produce the egg cells and hormones

Epinephrine

Neurotransmitter secreted by the adrenal medulla in response to stress. Also known as adrenaline; energizes the body

Norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal; calms the body

Growth Hormone (GH)

regulates the growth of the body and metabolism

Oxytocin

a hormone released by the pituitary gland that causes increased contraction of the uterus during labor and stimulates the ejection of milk into the ducts of the breasts.

Cell Body (Soma)

Largest part of a typical neuron; contains the nucleus and much of the cytoplasm

Dendrites

Branchlike parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information from other cells

Axon

Passes messages to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Neural Impulse

action potential, electrical signal traveling down the axon

Terminal Branches of Axon

Branched endings of an axon that transmit messages to other neurons; forms junctions with other neurons

Myelin Sheath

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

Glial Cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

Action Potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

All-or-None Response

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing at all

Excitory Neurotransmitters

cause next neuron to fire

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

inhibit the next cell from firing

Resting State (Polarized)

Prior to action potential, the neuron has a slightly negative charge

selective permeability

A property of biological membranes that allows some substances to cross more easily than others.

Axon Membrane

has chemical gates that can open to allow electrically charged particles to enter or can close to keep out electrically charged particles

Steps of Action Potential

resting state, depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization

Depolarization

The process during the action potential when sodium is rushing into the cell causing the interior to become more positive.

Refractory Period

the time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated; rest

Polarization

the resting state of the neuron, charge is more positive outside the membrane and more negative inside

Repolarization

Return of the cell to resting state, caused by reentry of potassium into the cell while sodium exits the cell.

Neurotransmitter

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

Synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

Reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention and learning and the brain's pleasure and reward system.

Endorphins

"morphine within"—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction

Alzheimer's neural cause

Deterioration of Acetylcholine producing neurons

Dopamine

influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion

Schizophrenia's neural cause

Oversupply of dopamine

Parkinson's disease neural cause

Undersupply of dopamine

Serotonin

Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal

Depression neural cause

Undersupply of serotonin

Norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal

Undersupply of epinephrine

Can depress mood

GABA

a major inhibitory neurotransmitter

Undersupply of GABA

linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

Oversupply of Glutamate

overstimulate brain, producing migraines or seizures

Endorphins

"morphine within"--natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Agonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response

Antagonist

Binds to receptor sites; blocks neurotransmitters from being absorbed

SSRI (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor)

blocks re-uptake of serotonin; can be used to fight depression

Psychoactive Drugs

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods

Tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

Withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

Addiction

compulsive craving and use, despite adverse consequences

Depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

Alcohol

((depressant)) disrupts memory formation (REM) lowers inhibition

Barbiturates

drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment; excessive use can impair memory

Opiates

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety; with overuse, brain will stop producing endorphins.

Heroin

narcotic drug derived from opium that is extremely addictive; stimulates dopamine release and prevents re-uptake.

Disinhibitor

slows brain activity that controls judgement and inhibitions

Stimulants

Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

Nicotine

a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco

Caffeine

a stimulant drug found in coffee, tea, cola drinks, chocolate, and many over-the-counter medications

Cocaine

a powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria

Amphetamines

drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; can be used to treat ADHD and epilepsy