Weeks 7 - 9

Chapters 11 - 13

allostasis

motivation is not only influenced by current needs, but also by the anticipation of future needs

anorexia nervosa

an eating disorder that involves (1) self-starvation, (2) intense fear of weight gain and dissatisfaction with one’s body, and (3) denial of the serious consequences of severely low weight

bulimia nervosa

an eating disorder that is characterized by periods of food deprivation, binge-eating, and purging

drive

a biological trigger that tells us we may be deprived of something and causes us to seek out what is needed, such as food or water

glucose

a sugar that serves as a primary energy source for the brain and the rest of the body

homeostasis

the body’s physiological processes that allow it to maintain consistent internal states in response to the outer environment

hypothalamus

a set of nuclei found on the bottom surface of the brain that are involved in regulating motivation and homeostasis by stimulating the release of hormones throughout the body

motivation

concerns the physiological and psychological processes underlying the initiation of behaviours that direct organisms toward specific goals

obesity

a disorder of positive energy balance, in which energy intake exceeds energy expenditure

satiation

the point in a meal when we are no longer motivated to eat

unit bias

the tendency to assume that the unit of sale or portioning is an appropriate amount to consume

incentives

the stimuli we seek out in order to reduce drives

Coolidge effect

the tendency for males to show renewed sexual interest when a new female becomes available

gender roles

the accepted attitudes and behaviours of males and females in a given society

intrasexual selection

a situation in which members of the same sex compete in order to win the opportunity to mate with members of the opposite sex

intersexual selections

a situation in which members of one sex select a mating partner based on their desirable traits

oxytocin

a stress-sensitive hormone that is typically associated with maternal bonding and social relationships

libido

the motivation for sexual activity and pleasure

refractory period

(1) brief period in which a neuron cannot fire; (2) a time period during which erection and orgasm are not physically possible

sex guilt

negative emotional feelings for having violated culturally accepted standards of appropriate sexual behaviour

sexual orientation

the consistent preference for sexual relations with members of the opposite sex (heterosexuality), same sex (homosexuality), or either sex (bisexuality)

sexual response cycle

the phases of physiological change during sexual activity, which comprises four primary stages: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

sexual scripts

the set of rules and assumptions about the sexual behaviours of males and females

testosterone

a hormone that is involved in the development of sex characteristics and the motivation of sexual behaviour

transgender

individuals who experience a mismatch between the gender that they identify with and their biological sex

achievement motivation

the drive to perform at high levels and to accomplish significant goals

amotivation

a feeling of having little or no motivation to perform a behaviour

approach goal

an enjoyable and pleasant incentive that a person is drawn toward, such as praise, financial reward, or a feeling of satisfaction

avoidance goal

an attempt to avoid an unpleasant outcome such as shame, embarrassment, losing money, or feeling emotional pain

companionate love

related to tenderness, and to the affection we feel when our lives are intertwined with another person

extrinsic motivation (performance motive)

motivation geared toward gaining rewards or public recognition, or avoiding embarrassment

intrinsic motivation (mastery motive)

the process of being internally motivated to perform behaviours and overcome challenges (e.g., a genuine desire to master a task rather than being motivated by a reward)

need to belong (affiliation motivation)

the motivation to maintain relationships that involve pleasant feelings such as warmth, affection, appreciation, and mutual concern for each person’s well-being

passionate love

associated with a physical and emotional longing for the other person

self-actualization

the point at which a person reaches his or her full potential as a creative, deep-thinking, and accepting human being

self-determination theory

an individual’s ability to achieve their goals and attain psychological well-being is influenced by the degree to which he or she is in control of the behaviours necessary to achieve those goals

self-efficacy

an individual’s confidence that he or she can plan and execute a course of action in order to solve a problem

terror management theory (TMT)

a psychological perspective asserting that the human fear of mortality motivates behaviour, particularly those that preserve self-esteem and our sense of belonging

amygdala

a group of nuclei in the medial portion (near the middle) of the temporal lobes in each hemisphere of the brain that facilitates memory formation for emotional events, mediates fear responses, and appears to play a role in recognizing and interpreting emotional stimuli, including facial expressions

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

the brain interprets a situation and generates subjective emotional feelings, and these representations in the brain trigger responses in the body

display rules

the unwritten expectations we have regarding when it is appropriate to show a certain emotion

emotion

a behaviour with the following three components: (a) a subjective thought and/or experience with (b) accompanying patterns of neural activity and physical arousal and (c) an observable behavioural expression (e.g., an emotional facial expression or changes in muscle tension)

emotional dialects

variations across cultures in how common emotions are expressed

facial feedback hypothesis

our emotional expressions can influence our subjective emotional states

James-Lange theory of emotion

our physiological reactions to stimuli (e.g., a racing heart) precede the emotional experience (e.g., the fear)

two-factor theory

patterns of physical arousal and the cognitive labels we attach to them form the basis of our emotional experiences

the dark triad

three traits—Machiavellianism, Psychopathy, and Narcissism—that describe a person who is socially destructive, aggressive, dishonest, and likely to commit harm in general

factor analysis

(1) a statistical technique that examines correlations between variables to find clusters of related variables, or “factors”; (2) in personality analysis, grouping items that people respond to similarly; for instance, the terms friendly and warm

Five Factor Model (FFM)

a trait-based theory of personality based on the finding that personality can be described using five major dimensions

HEXACO model of personality

a six-factor theory that generally replicates the factors of the Five Factor Model and adds one additional factor: Honesty–Humility

idiographic approach

creating detailed descriptions of a specific person’s unique personality characteristics

nomothetic approach

examines personality in large groups of people, with the aim of making generalizations about personality structure

personality

a characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and behaving that is unique to each individual, and remains relatively consistent over time and situations

personality trait

a specific psychological characteristic that makes up part of a person’s personality

reciprocal determinism

behaviour, internal (personal) factors, and external (situational) factors interact to determine one another, and our personalities are based on interactions among these three aspects

right-wing authoritarianism (RWA)

a problematic set of personality characteristics that also predisposes people to certain types of violent or anti-social tendencies: (1) obeying orders and deferring to the established authorities in a society; (2) supporting aggression against those who dissent or differ from the established social order; and (3) believing strongly in maintaining the existing social order

state

a temporary physical or psychological engagement that influences behaviour

arousal theory of extraversion

extraversion is determined by people’s threshold for arousal

ascending reticular activating system (ARAS)

plays a central role in controlling the arousal response

behavioral activation system (BAS)

a “GO” system, arousing the person to action in the pursuit of desired goals

behavioral inhibition system (BIS)

a “danger” system, motivating the person to action in order to avoid punishments or other negative outcomes

humorism

explained both physical illnesses and disorders of personality as resulting from imbalances in key fluids in the body

phrenology

the theory that personality characteristics could be assessed by carefully measuring the outer skull

response styles

characteristic ways of responding to questions

analytical psychology

focuses on the role of unconscious archetypes in personality development

archetypes

images and symbols that reflect common “truths” held across cultures, such as universal life experiences or types of people

collective unconscious

a separate, non-personal realm of the unconscious that holds the collective memories and mythologies of humankind, stretching deep into our ancestral past

conscious mind

your current awareness, containing everything you are aware of right now

defense mechanisms

unconscious strategies the ego uses to reduce or avoid anxiety

ego

the decision maker, frequently under tension, trying to reconcile the opposing urges of the id and superego

fixation

becoming preoccupied with obtaining the pleasure associated with a particular Freudian stage as a result of not being able to adequately regulate oneself and satisfy needs at that stage

id

a collection of basic biological drives, including those directed toward sex and aggression

inferiority complex

the struggle many people have with feelings of inferiority, which stem from experiences of helplessness and powerlessness during childhood

person-centered perspective

founded on the assumption that people are basically good, and given the right environment their personality will develop fully and normally

personal unconscious

a vast repository of experiences and patterns that are absorbed during the entire experiential unfolding of the person’s life

projective tests

personality tests in which ambiguous images are presented to an individual to elicit responses that reflect unconscious desires or conflicts

Rorschach inkblot test

a test in which people are asked to describe what they see on an inkblot, and psychologists interpret this description using a standardized scoring and interpretation method

self-actualization

the point at which a person reaches his or her full potential as a creative, deep-thinking, and accepting human being

superego

comprised of our values and moral standards

thematic apperception test (TAT)

a test in which respondents are asked to tell stories about ambiguous pictures involving various interpersonal situations

unconscious mind

a vast and powerful but inaccessible part of your consciousness, operating without your conscious endorsement or will to influence and guide your behaviours

the H in HEXACO

honesty - humility

the E in HEXACO

emotionality (neuroticism) : security and anxiety

the X in HEXACO

eXtraversion

the A in HEXACO

agreeableness

the C in HEXACO

conscientiousness: ambition

the O in HEXACO

openness to experience

altruism

helping others in need without receiving or expecting reward for doing so

bystander effect

the presence of other people actually reduces the likelihood of helping behavior

diffusion of responsibility

the responsibility for taking action is spread across more than one person, thus making no single individual feel personally responsible

groupthink

a decision-making problem in which group members avoid arguments and strive for agreement

informational influence

occurs when people internalize the values and beliefs of the group, coming to believe the same things and feel the same ways themselves

mimicry

taking on for ourselves the behaviours, emotional displays, and facial expressions of others

normative influence

a social pressure to adopt a group’s perspective in order to be accepted, rather than rejected, by a group

social facilitation

occurs when one’s performance is affected by the presence of others

social loafing

occurs when an individual puts less effort into working on a task with others

social norms

the (usually unwritten) guidelines for how to behave in social contexts

social roles

are more specific sets of expectations for how someone in a specific position should behave

contact hypothesis

social contact between members of different groups is extremely important to overcoming prejudice

dual-process models

models of behaviour that account for both implicit and explicit processes