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Conditions of Mao's emergence
economic factors
social division
weak political system
impact of war
Conditions of Mao's emergence: Economic factors
(1) China failed to modernize during the nineteenth century (Opium Wars and First Sino-Japanese War weakened the economy, Japan and the west imposed unequal treaties on China).
(2) Roughly 80% of the population was living in poverty at the start of the twentieth century.
(3) The economic system did not improve significantly after the 1911 revolution.
(4) During the Nanjing Decade Chiang Kaishek introduced some economic reforms including the building of roads and railways. This led to modest economic improvements.
(5) China's economy was devastated by the Second Sino-Japanese war and the Chinese Civil War. Hyperinflation during both wars made conditions very difficult for people across China
First Sino-Japanese War
1894-1895
conflict between China and Japan over control of Korea
Japanese victory
abdication of the child emperor Puyi, the republic of China formally came into being
February 1912
Yuan Shikai called parliamentary elections
1913
The Revolutionary alliance (now the National People's party, GMD) won the elections but Yuan Shikai banned the GMD and shut down parliament.
Yuan Shikai
1914
He ruled China as if he were emperor until his death. He proved unable to stand up to foreign aggression.
Death of president Yuan Shikai
1916
He left China weak and divided. After his death, there was no effective central government in China. There was an officially recognized government in Beijing, but its authority did not extend over much of China.
Warlord era
1916-1927
Saw the weakening of China as it became fragmented and divided. Power was in the hands of the warlords, war between them made life difficult for peasants.
Nanjing Decade
1927-1937
period where Nanjing was the capital of China after Chiang Kaishek turned on the Communists and established a government in Nanjing
the Second Sino-Japanese War
1937-1945
Chinese Civil War
1945-1949
Conflict between the GMD and CCP
Conditions of Mao's emergence: social division
(1) China had high levels of social inequality leading up to the Chinese Civil War, large numbers of agricultural workers lived in poverty.
(2) The warlord era highlights the regional divisions within China (war between warlords of different regions); even after 1927 many areas remained outside Nationalist control.
(3) Wealth tended to be focused in urban areas (eg. Shanghai during the Nanjing Decade)
(4) People were increasing dissatisfaction with the Chiang Kaishek and the GMD, and saw the CCP as an alternative.
Conditions of Mao's emergence: weak political system
(1) The Xinhai revolution failed to establish a strong system of governance.
(2) The early Republic of China under Yuan Shikai only lasted for a few years.
(3) China's political system was further weakened during the warlord era.
(4) The Nanjing Decade brought some stability, but the GMD was unpopular with the poorer sections of society. It had also failed to consolidate its control over the whole of China and needed to make strategic alliances with warlords.
(5) The political system introduced by Chiang and the Nationalists was conservative and authoritarian. Many of Chiang's ideas were ineffective.
Xinhai revolution
1911-1912
revolution that ended dynastic rule. The child emperor Puyi was forced to abdicate and the Qing empire fell. Led to a republic started by Sun Yat-Sen.
Yuan Shikai
President of the early Republic of China from 1912-1916. While in power, he increasingly used dictatorial methods.
Sun Yat-sen
Chinese nationalist revolutionary, founder and leader of the Guomindang until his death. He attempted to create a liberal democratic political movement in China but was thwarted by military leaders.
Conditions of Mao's emergence: impact of war
(1) The end of WW1 came with humiliation: Shandong was given to Japan in Versailles which led to the May 4th movement. This paved the way for the emergence of the CCP.
(2) The first united front ended with the white terror and the establishment of the Nanjing decade. The CCP fled to the Jiangxi mountains during the Jiangxi soviet.
(3) The Second Sino-Japanese War devastated China through loss of human life and economic damage. The Chinese felt outraged at many of the atrocities committed during the war, especially the Nanjing Massacre. The atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki ended the war against Japan, China was victorious.
(4) The Chinese Civil War created the conditions for the CCP to take control of the whole of China. The GMD had been significantly weakened by the years of fighting the Japanese and Chiang's authority and popularity had declined as a result of war. The CCP won support while the GMD lost it due to corruption, inflation and repression. Mao's cult of leadership reached epic proportions and inspired confidence in the CCP.
Chinese deaths from the second Sino-Japanese war
Around 20 million Chinese deaths, of which around 17 million civilians.
China during WW1
China provided the allies with support with the expectation that Shandong province would be returned to them after the defeat of Germany, however the Treaty of Versailles gave Japan the German concessions in China. This led to the May 4th movement
May 4th movement
May 4, 1919
Student protests in Beijing followed by nationwide demonstrations: the protesters denounced the 21 demands. They felt China had been betrayed by the western powers and were furious about Japanese expansion. Mao was involved in the movement.
Emergence of the CCP
Formed in Shanghai, Mao was one of the founding delegates. The Russian comintern encouraged the formation of the CCP and sent agents to China.
number of delegates and members in the CCP at its foundation
12 delegates representing 57 members
First united front
1924
The GMD and CCP were not strong enough to achieve power alone, a merger of the parties had the potential to broaden the appeal of the GMD, and an alliance with the Christian warlord who had control in Beijing would add military strength to the GMD.
CCP and GMD were united in their determination to defeat the warlords despite ideological differences. The communist revolution could not be achieved unless the warlords were defeated and foreign interference crushed. The CCP formed a bloc within the GMD and was the inferior partner, accepting GMD control and discipline. Membership of the CCP and GMD rose.
Death of Sun Yat-sen
1925
Impact of the death of Sun Yat-Sen
Chiang Kaishek became leader of the united front. Mao was becoming more active in the CCP and was seen as the leader against the warlords and landlords by the peasants. This played a significant role in his rise to power.
the "White Terror"
Chiang Kaishek wanted to reassert authority. With the support of landlords, warlords, secret societies, criminal organizations and western groups still in China, he used military force to "purge" communist organizations. Union members, communists and peasant associations came under attack and thousands were killed.
The Jiangxi Soviet
1927-1934
The period where Mao and the CCP were forced retreat to the Jiangxi mountains. Mao consolidated his position in the CCP, Maoism took form. It was also during this period that Mao applied brutality against his rivals (Futian incident, 1930. 4000 red army troops were tortured and executed as Mao likely regarded them as rebels plotting against him, likely he suspected they supported other potential leaders in the party. His authoritarian methods against opposition is a key trait in his rise to the forefront of the party and evident in the way he ruled China.
Futian incident
December 1930
4000 Red Army troops were tortured and executed. Mao likely regarded them as rebels plotting against him, and he suspected they supported other potential leaders in the party. His authoritarian methods against opposition is a key trait in his rise to the forefront of the party and evident in the way he ruled China.
Second Sino-Japanese war
1937-1945
China was devastated through loss of human life and economic damage.
The Chinese felt outraged at many of the atrocities committed during the war, especially the Nanjing Massacre.
Around 20 million Chinese people lost their lives between 1937-1945 in the war against Japan. The dead included around 17 million civilians.
Nanjing Massacre
1937
Event in which Japanese soldiers murdered as many as 300,000 Chinese men, women, and children after capturing the city of Nanjing
Second Sino-Japanese War and the CCP
The war played a crucial part in weakening the GMD and strengthening Mao and the CCP.
Many intellectuals turned to the CCP in the face of Kaishek becoming increasingly dictatorial and repressing critique. This, hyperinflation and taxation of the poor gave Mao and his ideas moral credibility. The GMD was spread thin and forced southards by Japanese advances which allowed the CCP to take control of much of the countryside and northern China.
Yanan
1935-1945
After the long march survivors settled in Yanan. Mao spread his ideas and gained authority in the CCP.
causes of loss of support for the GMD during the Sino-Japanese war
In 1941 the GMD turned on the communist armies in the south which lost Chiang Kaishek support at home and abroad.
Conditions for the GMD soldiers were bad. Kaishek became increasingly dictatorial and any opposition or critique was repressed (leading to loss of support from intellectuals)
Kaishek responded to inflation with printing more money which led to hyperinflation and taxes were levied against the peasants.
the Chinese civil war
1945-1949
CCP victory of the Chinese civil war
1949
Methods of Mao's emergence
Ideology
role of leader
persuasion and coercion
force
propaganda
Methods of Mao's emergence: ideology
Ideology was important to the CCP's rise to power. The party initially followed Marxism-Leninism.
Between 1935-1949, the CCP was based in Yanan. In this location it was able to develop Mao's ideology and policies.
Mao stressed the revolutionary potential of rural peasants in China who made up the majority of the population.
The CCP held ideological appeal through policies such as land reform and gender equality. It was also seen to be committed to nationalism, which was popular with people during the time when Japan was at war with China.
Comintern
Communist organisation to spread communism worldwide. In the 1920s this had an influence on the early development of the CCP.
Mao's ideas
the rural peasants in China had revolutionary potential. They made up the majority of the population.
This opposed the Soviet ideology that stressed the revolution would come from industrial workers.
Autumn Harvest Uprising
September 1927
Uprising of the Hunan peasants against the GMD and their landlords, led by Mao Zedong. Mao was acting under the orders of the Comintern and he expressed misgivings about the ability of peasants to carry out a revolution at the time. In later life, he would use this uprising as proof that he had been the first to see the revolutionary potential of the peasants. In any event, the uprising was quickly crushed.
Methods of Mao's rise to power: role of the leader
Mao Zedong played an important role in the CCP from the outset. He was a military leader; he led the Autumn Harvest Uprising and made use of guerrilla warfare.
Mao was able to use the Long March to increase his position and power within the CCP.
He launched a number of self-criticism campaigns during the early 1940s such as the Rectification of Conduct Campaign.
By 1943 a cult of personality began to emerge. CCP ideology was referred to as Mao Zedong thought.
guerrilla warfare
fighting carried on through hit-and-run raids
irregular and unpredictable techniques
Long March
1934-1935 retreat by Chinese Communists fleeing from the Nationalist forces
The 28 Bolsheviks
A particular set of communists who had been trained in Moscow and came back to China with instructions to make the CCP conform to Soviet concepts of revolution.
They were especially critical of Mao's ideology and took a more pro-Soviet view.
Rectification campaigns
1942
Led to the removal of potential opposition. Anyone suspected of being disloyal was forced to confess to their crimes and publicly stripped of their possessions/post.
Mao wanted to remove any revisionist ideas from the CCP and encouraged strict adherence to its ideology, to keep his followers strictly in line with his ideological position.
Beginning of Mao's cult of personality
By 1943 a cult of personality began to emerge. CCP ideology was referred to as Mao Zedong thought.
Methods of Mao's rise to power: persuasion and coercion
The CCP had very different policies and approaches from the GMD. Throughout its control of the Jiangxi Soviet, and later the Yanan years, it was able to increase membership through the popularity of its policies.
The CCP appealed to the rural peasantry.
Rules were established for good conduct by the Red Army, such as 'be courteous and help out where you can' and 'replace all damaged articles'.
Mao and the communists gained favour during the civil war, while the GMD fell out of favour due to corruption, inflation and repression. Mao had used party propaganda to good effect.
Threat of force from the CCP if people did not cooperate with its practices, atrocities were committed against those who did not conform. The communists could also veto the local peasant associations if they did not agree with their decisions.
Peasant membership numbers of the CCP between 1937-1945
40,000 in 1937 to 1 million in 1945.
How the CCP appealed to the rural peasants
land reform policies, literacy campaigns and medical programmes, the creation of local peasant associations to provide representation, the ending of usury (a system which placed high levels of interest on loans).
Methods of Mao's rise to power: force
Early examples of CCP violence against opposition can be seen in the Futian Incident
Mao's ideology indicated an acceptance and willingness for the use of force where necessary.
Mao used political and military skill along with repression to overcome potential leadership bids from his opponents and attempts by the comintern to dominate the party, the need to rebuild the CCP support base, and the ideological struggle within the party.
Yanan: Land redistribution was often done by force, where landlords had their land confiscated from them; this often involved violence and a loss of life. Violent campaigns to wipe out corruption and rectification campaigns.
Methods of Mao's rise to power: propaganda
The Long March was used as propaganda by the CCP, giving Mao and other leaders cult status. It played an essential role in communist folklore: the CCP showed resilience against all odds.
Mao's cult of personality grew as his writings and image were promoted by the CCP.
The rules of conduct of the Red Army were a form of propaganda as they worked as self-promotion.
The leaders wrote literature to promote the movement, for example Liu Shaoqi wrote How to Be a Good Communist in 1939.
Rectification campaigns, strict censorship cut off contact from Yanan, Mao's enemies were denounced, self criticism sessions were held.
Mao's Consolidation and maintenance of power elements
legal methods, force, propaganda, charismatic leadership, impact of foreign policy
Methods of consolidation of power
removal of the state apparatus, removal of opposition, propaganda
Consolidation and maintenance of power: removal of the state apparatus
There was no democratic system to remove at the time of his seizure of power. He established a new system dividing China into 6 bureaus (each with 4 officials, military in outlook, intended to be temporary).
At this point other parties were still permitted.
Individuals elected into power but they had to be party members.
China becomes a one party state
1952
Formalization of the Chinese constitution
1954
Consolidation and maintenance of power: propaganda
posters promoting different policies, removing 'revisionist' lines of thought or those which painted the West in a positive light)
The arts were censored, works commissioned were to support CCP ideology.
Loudspeakers were widely used to spread the message of the CCP.
By 1949 most newspapers were out of business and those that remained printed the same news. Journalists and editors went through reeducation so the party could rely on self censorship and news conformed to the party line.
Communist rallies, songs and slogans widely advertised the success of the revolution. Chinese people participated with enthusiasm, believing they were part of a national transformation.
The cult of personality of Mao was very important. 1966 swim in the Yangtze River was used to promote his position as a strong leader and
The Little Red Book was distributed throughout the country.
Victory in Korea against UN troops, he was the one who persuaded communist leadership to take action
Thought reform
people were reeducated and had to learn party doctrine. Many were forced to confess to past mistakes often in public.
Consolidation and maintenance of power: legal methods
The country was divided into six regions, each controlled by a chairman, party secretary, military commander and political commissar.
The People's Liberation Army (PLA) played an influential role in the political control of China.
The CCP claimed the power rested with the people through the NPC, but it was controlled by party officials.
Reunification Campaigns
By 1952 china was effectively a one party state, constitution formalized in 1954
National People's Congress (NPC)
responsible for deciding national policy. Party officials oversaw the election to the NPC so no one critical of Mao could make a stand. It only rubber-stamped the decisions of the Politburo.
Politburo
inner group of 20 leading members of the CCP that ran China at a national level
Consolidation and maintenance of power: force
The great terror
Landlords were vilified
The Anti-Campaigns were set up to remove from China any people who were seen to be against the CCP's interests, especially those who were wealthy.
In the early consolidation phase, religious groups were also targeted with the closing down of places of worship and the denunciation of religions such as Christianity and Buddhism.
Gangsters and members of organized crime groups targeted.
Laogai, to 're-educate' people.
Reunification Campaigns
1950s
operations to secure borders and bring regions of China under centralized control, consolidate China's borders as well as weaken any independence movements. These included taking control of Tibet, Xinjiang Province and Guangdong.
The great terror (1966-1976)
household registration system, policies which encouraged spying on neighbours, people denounced one another to show their allegiance to the regime.
Household registration system
started by the nationalists in areas they wanted to secure control of during the civil war. It allowed the CCP to label individuals as "good" "middle" or "bad" on the basis of their loyalty to the party. Labels were inherited, became a key method of ensuring conformity.
Later, it bound rural peasants to the country, city residents retain rights (like a passport system)
Anti-Campaigns
The Three Anti-campaign (1951), extended to the Five Anti-Campaign (1952), targeting different forms of corruption. Mao started to turn on the middle class that had supported the CCP administration of China in its early years. Mao declared reactionaries and counter-revolutionaries enemies of the state.
Vilification of Landlords
Many landlords were put on public trial and humiliated. Speak Bitterness meetings (started in 1947) encouraged public grievances to be heard against the landlords.
Estimate of 1 million killed by 1950
laogai
A network of prison camps set up across China. They were designed to 're-educate' people. They became a source of labour during the economic projects of the Great Leap Forward (slave labour). Located in harsh areas, where the climate was brutal and disease spread easily in the camps. Millions of people were held in the camps during Mao's rule over China.
Anti-Rightist Campaign
1957
Mao encouraged open criticism of the party, to speak out and criticize different things about how the CCP ruled China and denunciations of officials. Mao saw these critics as examples of 'rightists' and capitalist roaders. He ordered a crackdown, arresting and imprisoning many people. Some say that it was an intentional ruse, others suggest that there was an original motive to allow ideas and criticism to be expressed and the crackdown had not been planned.
Consolidation and maintenance of power: Charismatic leadership
Mao was a figurehead for the party.
Mao's image was seen throughout China, and his speeches, writings and teachings were promoted.
Even after the Great Leap Forward he was not heavily criticized.
Mao's authority was promoted by the Gang of Four During the Cultural Revolution Mao's authority was promoted
Great Leap Forward
the second Five-Year Plan in China, which involved the creation of communes and high industrial targets. Resulted in famine
Gang of Four
Four members of the Chinese Communist Party who promoted the Cultural Revolution. The gang included Jiang Qing (Mao's wife)
The Cultural Revolution
1966-1976
Campaign in China ordered by Mao Zedong to purge the Communist Party of his opponents and instill revolutionary values in the younger generation.
Mao's authority was promoted
the 'four olds' were attacked
Consolidation and maintenance of power: impact of foreign policy
Foreign policy under Mao involved a difficult and changing relationship with both the Soviet Union and the USA.
Mao wanted China to gain recognition as a powerful independent state on the world stage.
China and the Soviet Union
Mao and Stalin had differences of opinion on ideology. Stalin rejected Mao's interpretation of Marxism based on Chinese conditions.
In the early days of the PRC, the CCP needed help from Stalin and the Soviet Union in its consolidation of power. Mao visited Moscow in 1950, resulting in the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance. The CCP depended strongly on Soviet aid through the 1950s.
The Korean War placed a strain on Sino-Soviet relations as Mao felt that China made greater sacrifices in the support of North Korea than had the Soviet Union.
Sino-Soviet relations worsened after the death of Stalin. Mao also disliked the new Soviet policy of peaceful coexistence with the West and China's subsequent isolation.
Tensions increased when both sides failed to come to an agreement after Khrushchev visited Beijing in 1958.
Lowest point in relations was in 1969 when a minor incident sparked a war at the Sino-Soviet border (the threat of nuclear war ended the conflict).
Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance
1950
The treaty laid the foundations for economic assistance from the USSR to China during the first five year plan, it involved loans from the Soviet Union to China (with high interest rates) and the deployment of thousands of Soviet 'advisers' to China.
The Korean War
1950-1953
Conflict that began with North Korea's invasion of South Korea and came to involve the United Nations (primarily the United States) allying with South Korea and the People's Republic of China allying with North Korea.
Effect of the Korean War on Mao's reputation
China's successful military encounters during the war bolstered Mao's position in China and internationally.
Death of Stalin
1953
Khrushchev emerged as successor to Stalin in the Soviet Union
1956
PRC achieves nuclear capability
1964
bolstering Mao's authority in China and in the developing world.
Moscow Conference
1961
Diplomatic relations between USSR and PRC severed after Chinese delegation walked out
Lowest point in Sino-Soviet relations
1969
minor incident sparked a war at the Sino-Soviet border, only the threat of nuclear war ended the conflict.
China and the USA
CCP victory ushered in decades of tension with the USA, its traditional Western imperialist enemy.
Anti-American campaigns intensified during the Korean civil war and the cultural revolution.
Tension heightened by China's moral and diplomatic support of USA's enemies in the Vietnam war.
Mao always feared the USA could launch an attack on China.
Mao changed course in 1971 and invited the USA ping pong team to play in China. In 1972 he invited Nixon to China, this led to the establishment of full diplomatic relations in 1979.
Sino-Soviet rift end
Lasted until Mao's death in 1976
His successor took on a more tolerant approach to the USSR and the West
China warmed to the USA
1971
invited the USA table tennis team to play in China
to undermine USSR as a world power
Mao invited president Nixon to China
1972
major diplomatic success for both formal rival nations
Full diplomatic relations between USA and China
1979
nature of opposition
POLITICAL: GMD, former GMD supporters, Political moderates, Opposition parties
INTERNATIONAL: UN accepted nationalists in Taiwan as the legitimate government
RELIGIOUS: Buddhism in Tibet, Muslims in the west bordering Mongolia and Christianity
ETHNIC MINORITIES
SOCIAL/CLASS: Landlords and businessmen
Extent of opposition
dissent, opposition, active resistance
Dissent
general complaining or dissatisfaction (working hours, wages, conditions) mundane non-political matters.
Seriousness- most populations will complain, this does not mean political motive. Complaining about conditions does not point to widespread opposition and even less to active resistance.
Opposition
concrete initiative to speak against the regime.
Political opposition
Religious opposition
Mao's campaigns generated a climate of fear, forcing those who disagreed with CCP policies into compliance and obedience.
Active resistance
beyond speaking, taking action.
Rebellions, especially in the south to resist grain requisitioning and land reform when CCP first came to power
Rebellion in Chongqing by former GMD
Tibetan uprising
Tibetan Uprising
1959
uprising met with suppression and mass arrests. The Dalai Lama fled and tibetans were banned from mentioning him.
Treatment of opposition
Suppression of Counter-Revolutionaries campaign
Extension of the Counter-Revolutionaries campaign
Ban of political, religious and semi-religious organizations
Mass hearings and punishments (urban), speak bitterness (rural)
Forced labour camps
Mass killings
CCP party purges
Anti rightist campaigns (three and five anti campaigns)
Anti-Revolutionaries campaign
This campaign sought to identify and wipe out remaining opposition to the CCP, including remnants of the Nationalist army and supporters of the GMD.
Introduction of martial law in Chongqing which had served as Chiang Kaishek's capital during World War II. It housed many former Nationalists, soldiers and officials.
By the end of 1949, some of them had formed an insurgency and were attempting to sabotage CCP by encouraging strikes and lawlessness. Party commanders in the city responded by seizing weapons, jailing former Nationalists and executing insurgents.
By the end of 1950, most opposition in Chongqing had been suppressed.
Mao extended the campaign to other cities after the success in Chongqing but urged CCP cadres to be less brutal, as he believed the skills and cooperation of the middle class was still needed.
Ban of political, religious and semi-religious parties
The CCP government banned political, religious and semi-religious organisations (GMD, Christian churches, Buddhist temples, Shanghai's Green Gang, and more) The leaders of these groups were exiled, imprisoned or executed.
Mao bombarded the cities with propaganda to demonize these groups and any other opposition.
Mass killings
The regimes most dangerous enemies were imprisoned or executed. Others were interrogated or kept under surveillance. Violent killing campaign of gangs
CCP party purges
1954
Mao grew concerned about potential rivals within the party. A witch hunt followed: leaders were dismissed from their positions, sent to prison camps for treachery and splitting the party.
Economic policies
For the revolution to succeed, China had to become a command economy:
First five year plan (notable results)
Second five year plan (famine)