Psych Exam

social pyschology

study of how humans think about, influence and relate to one another

dispostional attribution

the tendency to attribute the behavior of others to their character or personality

situational attribution

attributing our own behavior to the environment or situation

fundemental attribution error

The tendency to attribute the behavior of others to their character or personality (dispositional attribution) and our own behaviors to circumstances or situation (situational attribution)

attitudes and actions

have a reciprocal relationship (they affect each other)

group polarization

tendency of group members to move to an extreme position after discussing an issue as a group

peripheral route persuasion

relies on association with positive characteristics such as positive emotions and celebrity endorsement

central route persuasion

logic driven and uses data and facts to convince people of an argument's worthiness

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

asking for a small favor first increases that someone will do a larger favor next

door-in-the-face phenomenon

asking for big favors (and expecting a no) makes it more likely for someone to agree to a smaller favor next

role playing

people will often act in accordance with what they think is expected based on a role

culture

the behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values and traditions shared by a group of people transmitted from one generation to the next

conformity

adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

social facilitation

stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

minority influence

the case where a minority of group members influences the behavior or beliefs of the majority

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

deindividualization

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

social pressure

conformity and pressure to fit in with majority opinion

roots of prejudice

social, emotional, cognitive

just-world phenomenon

if you're good you'll be rewarded and if you're bad you'll be punished

cognitive shortcuts

stereotyped beliefs

victim blaming

affirming a consequence by placing responsibility on the person "in the wrong"

Ashe experiment (conformity)

people are more likely to wrong answers if they are first given by others in a group

neuron

a nerve cell: the basic building block of the nervous system

central nervous system

brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

hindbrain

An area of the brain that coordinates information coming into and out of the spinal cord

midbrain

Region between the hindbrain and the forebrain; it is important for hearing and sight.

forbrain

Collection of upper-level brain structures, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, and limbic system.

frontal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that has specialized areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgement

parietal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex whose functions include processing information about touch.

temporal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex responsible for hearing and language.

occiptal lobe

visual processing

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

neurotransmitters

released from the sending neuron travel across the synapse and bind the receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing it to generate an action potential

synapse

connection between a nerve cell and another cell

monozygotic twins (MZ)

identical twins from the same fertilized egg (share 100% DNA)

dizygotic twins (DZ)

fraternal twins from two eggs and two sperms that share ~50% DNA

Significantly higher concordance rates in MZ twins compared with DZ twins indicates

genetic factor involved in the trait in question

Similar concordance rates between MZ and DZ twins indicates

environmental factors mostly at work in the trait in question

sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

top-down processing

how knowledge, expectations, or past experiences shape the interpretation of sensory information

bottom-up processing

the process of 'sensation', whereby the input of sensory information from the external environment is received by our sensory receptors.

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time

light

visible light from electromagnetic spectrum

light travels

in waves

wavelength determines

color (hue)

amplitude determines

brightness

white light (from sun or light bulb)

is made up of all wavelengths in the visible spectrum

different wavelengths

are absorbed and reflected by objects to give color

cornea

The clear tissue that covers the front of the eye

pupil

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

cones

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

information processing

an approach to cognitive development studies that aims to explain how information is encoded into memory

photoreceptors

respond to light

rods detect

light

cones detect

color

perceptual organization

the process by which stimuli are organized into meaningful units

gestalt organization

our brain is innately wire to perceive patterns in stimulation, not just the stimulus itself

Law of Prangnanz (Gestalt)

The human eye likes to find simplicity and order in complex shapes - it prevents us from being overwhelmed by information overload

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

binocular cues

depth cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence, that depend on the use of two eyes

monocular cues

depth cues available to either eye alone

learning

a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

unconditioned stimulus

A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning

conditioned stimulus

A previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response.

unconditioned response

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

conditioned response

a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

acquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows (increase behavior)

positive reinforcement

adding something (desirable) to increase behavior

negative reinforcement

taking something away (not enjoyable) to increase behavior

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

secondary reinforcer

any reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such as praise, tokens, or gold stars

consistent reinforcement leads to

faster extinction

fixed

on regular basis, predetermined intervals

variable

more random, not a regular bases

interval

an amount of time

ratio

a number of events

fixed ratio

reward given after a specific number of events

fixed interval

reward given after a specific amount of time

variable ratio

reward given after different numbers of events

variable interval

reward given after different amounts of time

punishment

decreases a behavior

positive punishment

adding something (undesirable) to decrease behavior

negative punishment

taking something (desirable) away to decrease a behavior

limits to classical and operant conditioning

Not all associations are learned equally well. Those associations that enhance survival are more easily learned