World War 1

Unification of Germany (1871)

series of wars led by prussia united German states through war, defeating France in 1871 and creating a powerful German Empire.

Germany's rise threatened other powers, especially France, leading to rival alliances and growing tensions that helped spark WWI.

Triple Alliance (1882)

Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy formed a military alliance to support each other if attacked.

Link to WWI:

This alliance increased fear and rivalry, prompting France, Russia, and Britain to form the Triple Entente, dividing Europe into hostile camps that led to WWI.

Germany Pursues Weltpolitik (from 1897)

• Germany adopted Weltpolitik ("world policy") to expand its global influence through colonies and a strong navy.

• Link to WWI: This aggressive policy alarmed Britain and France, worsened tensions, and deepened the divide between European powers, helping lead to WWI.

Franco-Russian Alliance (1894):

France and Russia agreed to support each other if attacked by Germany or its allies.

Link to WWI:
This alliance surrounded Germany, increased tensions, and contributed to the formation of two opposing blocs that led to WWI.

German Naval laws

Germany passed laws to rapidly build up its navy to rival Britain’s.

Link to WWI:
This triggered a naval arms race with Britain, increased hostility, and pushed Britain closer to France and Russia, deepening the divisions that led to WWI.

• First Naval Law (1898): Planned 19 battleships, plus cruisers and torpedo boats.

• Second Naval Law (1900): Increased the total to 38 battleships.

Anglo Japanese Alliance 1902

Britain and Japan agreed to support each other’s interests in Asia, especially against Russia.

Link to WWI:
This allowed Britain to focus on European threats, strengthened its global position, and showed growing international rivalries that fed into WWI tensions.

Entente Cordiale (1904):

Russo Japanese war 1904-05

A conflict between Russia and Japan over control of Manchuria and Korea, with Japan emerging victorious.

Link to WWI:
Russia’s defeat weakened its position, leading to internal unrest and prompting it to seek alliances like the Franco-Russian Alliance, contributing to the tensions that led to WWI.

First Moroccan Crisis 1905

Germany challenged France's influence in Morocco, supporting Moroccan independence, in an attempt to test the Entente Cordiale.

Link to WWI:
Germany's actions angered France and Britain, increasing tensions between the European powers and solidifying the divisions that contributed to the outbreak of WWI.

The British Dreadnouaght is launched 1906

The British HMS Dreadnought, a revolutionary battleship with heavier armament and faster speed, was launched, making all previous battleships obsolete.

Link to WWI:
It triggered a naval arms race between Britain and Germany, intensifying rivalries and contributing to the tensions that eventually led to WWI.

Formation of the Triple Entente (1907):

The Triple Entente was an alliance between France, Russia, and Britain, formed in response to the growing threat of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy).

Link to WWI:
It solidified a powerful counterbalance to the Central Powers, contributing to the division of Europe into opposing camps and escalating tensions that led to WWI.

Bosnian Crisis (1908–1909):

austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, territories formally under Ottoman control, angering Serbia and Russia.

Link to WWI:
This deepened tensions in the Balkans, increased Russian resentment towards Austria-Hungary, and set the stage for future conflicts in the region, contributing to the outbreak of WWI.

Second Moroccan Crisis (1911):

Germany sent a gunboat, the Panther, to the Moroccan port of Agadir to protest France’s increasing control over Morocco.

Link to WWI:
This escalated tensions between Germany and France, drawing Britain into the conflict due to its alliance with France, and further deepening the divisions between the Great Powers, contributing to the tensions leading up to WWI.

First Balkan War (1912):

The Balkan League (Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro) fought against the Ottoman Empire to seize its remaining territories in Europe.

Link to WWI:

The victory of the Balkan League increased tensions between the powers in the region, especially between Serbia and Austria-Hungary, setting the stage for further conflicts that contributed to the outbreak of WWI.

the Second Balkan War (1913):

After the First Balkan War, Bulgaria fought against its former allies Serbia, Greece, and Romania, along with the Ottoman Empire, over the division of the spoils of war.

Link to WWI:
The war weakened Bulgaria and deepened hostilities in the Balkans, especially between Serbia and Austria-Hungary, fueling nationalist tensions that would play a key role in the start of WWI.

June 28, 1914 – Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

• Event: The heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, and his wife, Sophie, are assassinated by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb nationalist, in Sarajevo, Bosnia.

• Immediate Impact: Austria-Hungary blames Serbia for the assassination, setting off a chain of diplomatic events.

July 5, 1914 – Austria-Hungary’s “Blank Check”

• Event: Austria-Hungary seeks the support of Germany, which offers unconditional backing (the “blank check”) in case of war with Serbia.

• Immediate Impact: Germany’s support emboldens Austria-Hungary, and war becomes more likely.

July 23, 1914 – Austria-Hungary Issues Ultimatum to Serbia

• Event: Austria-Hungary presents Serbia with a harsh ultimatum, demanding harsh measures to suppress anti-Austrian movements and allow Austro-Hungarian involvement in the investigation of the assassination.

• Immediate Impact: Serbia accepts most terms but rejects some, particularly the involvement of Austro-Hungarian officials in the investigation.

July 28, 1914 – Austria-Hungary Declares War on Serbia

• Event: After Serbia’s partial rejection of the ultimatum, Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia.

• Immediate Impact: Russia, which has a Slavic alliance with Serbia, begins mobilizing its forces to support Serbia.

July 29, 1914 – Russia Mobilizes

• Event: Russia orders general mobilization in response to Austria-Hungary’s declaration of war.

• Immediate Impact: Germany sees Russian mobilization as a threat and demands that Russia halt its military preparations.

July 31, 1914 – Germany’s Ultimatum to Russia

• Event: Germany issues an ultimatum to Russia, demanding the immediate cessation of mobilization, or else Germany will declare war on Russia.

• Immediate Impact: Russia refuses to stop its mobilization, and Germany declares war on Russia the following day.

August 1, 1914 – Germany Declares War on Russia

• Event: Germany declares war on Russia after Russia refuses to halt mobilization.

• Immediate Impact: Russia begins its mobilization in full force, and the alliance system starts to pull other countries into the conflict.

August 2, 1914 – German Invasion of Belgium

• Event: Germany enacts the Schlieffen Plan, which involves invading neutral Belgium to quickly reach France.

• Immediate Impact: This violation of Belgian neutrality brings Britain into the conflict, as Britain had pledged to defend Belgium’s neutrality.

August 3, 1914 – Germany Declares War on France

• Event: Germany declares war on France, following through with the Schlieffen Plan.

• Immediate Impact: France begins mobilization, and the conflict widens to include both Germany and France.

August 4, 1914 – Britain Declares War on Germany

• Event: Britain declares war on Germany after Germany invades Belgium.

• Immediate Impact: The war becomes a full-scale European conflict, with the Triple Entente (France, Russia, Britain) against the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary).

August 6, 1914 – Austria-Hungary Declares War on Russia

• Event: Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia in response to Russia’s mobilization and alliance with Serbia.

• Immediate Impact: The war expands further, with Austria-Hungary joining the conflict against Russia.

August 12, 1914 – France and Britain Declare War on Austria-Hungary

• Event: France and Britain declare war on Austria-Hungary, completing the alignment of the Triple Entente against the Central Powers.

• Immediate Impact: The war has now engulfed much of Europe, setting the stage for World War I.

Battle of the Marne (1914)

• Theater: Western Front (Ground)

• Technological Advancements:

  • Automobile and Radio Communication: Enhanced mobility and coordination for both artillery and troop movements.

  • Airplanes (Reconnaissance): Early use of planes for gathering intelligence and spotting artillery.

• Outcome: Allied victory, halting the German advance into France and saving Paris.

Battle of Tannenberg (1914)

• Theater: Eastern Front (Ground)

• Technological Advancements:

  • Railroads: Allowed rapid troop and supply movement over the vast distances of the Eastern Front.

  • Telegraph and Radio: Key in coordinating large-scale operations.

• Outcome: German victory, solidifying German control in the East.

Battle of Gallipoli (1915–1916)

• Theater: Middle Eastern Front (Sea and Ground)

• Technological Advancements:

  • Naval Warfare: Use of submarines and warships for blockades and amphibious landings.

  • Aircraft: First use of aircraft for naval reconnaissance and bombing raids on ships and installations.

• Outcome: Allied failure, showing the limits of amphibious assaults in well-defended positions.

Battle of Verdun (1916)

• Theater: Western Front (Ground)

• Technological Advancements:

  • Heavy Artillery: Mass use of artillery and introduction of the "creeping barrage," where artillery shells would fall just ahead of advancing infantry to suppress enemy positions.

  • Poison Gas: Increased use of chemical weapons like chlorine and mustard gas.

• Outcome: French victory at a high cost, symbolizing the brutal, attritional nature of trench warfare.

Battle of the Somme (1916)

• Theater: Western Front (Ground)

• Technological Advancements:

  • Tanks: First large-scale use of tanks, although they were slow and unreliable at first.

  • Aircraft: Introduction of strategic bombing and aerial combat for reconnaissance and attacks on ground troops.

  • Artillery: Refinement of artillery tactics, including counter-battery fire and more effective targeting.

• Outcome: Allied victory, but with heavy casualties; marked the beginning of mechanized warfare.

Battle of Jutland (1916)

• Theater: Naval Front (Sea)

• Technological Advancements:

  • Dreadnoughts: The battle saw the full use of dreadnought-class battleships, which were faster and carried more powerful guns than older battleships.

  • Wireless Radio: Allowed for real-time communication between ships and command centers, though not without some technical issues.

  • Radar (Early Development): Although not fully operational yet, early experiments with radar started during this period.

• Outcome: Tactical stalemate, but Britain maintained control of the seas, preventing Germany from breaking the naval blockade.

Battle of Caporetto (1917)

• Theater: Italian Front (Ground)

• Technological Advancements:

  • Infiltration Tactics: Innovative troop movements that bypassed enemy defenses, leading to breakthrough assaults.

  • Diverse Weaponry: Use of machine guns and artillery, along with poison gas to disrupt and disorganize enemy forces.

• Outcome: Significant Central Powers victory, resulting in a major retreat for Italian forces and a shift in front lines.

Battle of Passchendaele (1917)

• Theater: Western Front (Ground)

• Technological Advancements:

  • Mud Warfare: Heavy rainfall created treacherous conditions, stalling troop movements and complicating logistics.

  • Artillery Barrages: Extensive use of artillery to support infantry assaults, although often resulted in friendly fire.

  • Chemical Weapons: Continued use of poison gas to inflict damage on advancing troops.

• Outcome: Allied victory, but at a high cost, leading to significant casualties and erosion of morale.

Spring Offensive (1918)

• Theater: Western Front (Ground)

• Technological Advancements:

  • Stormtrooper Tactics: Widespread use of infiltration tactics with specialized infantry squads, supported by artillery and air reconnaissance.

  • Tanks: More effective use of tanks, which began to break the deadlock of trench warfare.

  • Aircraft: Enhanced coordination between ground forces and aircraft for reconnaissance and close air support.

• Outcome: Initially successful for Germany, but the Allies counterattacked and reversed the momentum, marking the beginning of the end for Germany.

Battle of Amiens (1918)

• Theater: Western Front (Ground, Air)

• Technological Advancements:

  • Tanks: A well-coordinated use of tanks, infantry, and artillery broke through the German lines, marking the first effective use of large numbers of tanks in battle.

  • Aircraft: Extensive use of aircraft for reconnaissance, bombing, and ground attack missions.

  • Communications: Use of wireless radios for real-time communication, allowing better coordination among units.

• Outcome: Allied breakthrough, marking the beginning of a series of successful offensives that ultimately led to the end of the war.

Key Technological Developments During WWI:

1. Tanks: Introduced at the Battle of the Somme, tanks gradually became more effective in breaking through trench lines and supporting infantry.

2. Aircraft: The development of reconnaissance planes, fighters, and bombers changed how battles were fought, providing intelligence and attacking enemy positions.

3. Artillery: Improved firepower, including the introduction of "creeping barrages" and precision targeting techniques, drastically altered infantry tactics.

4. Chemical Weapons: The use of poison gas like chlorine and mustard gas increased during battles such as Verdun and Ypres, causing severe casualties and fear.

5. Naval Technology: Dreadnoughts and submarines became dominant, with innovations like wireless communication and early radar shaping naval engagements.

6. Stormtrooper Tactics: Germany developed new methods of infiltration, using small, mobile units to bypass entrenched positions, influencing future tactics in warfare.

Economic Effects

1. War Costs and Debt

2. Inflation and Currency Devaluation

3. Collapse of Trade

War Costs and Debt

• Event: WWI drained national treasuries, with European countries spending vast sums on military equipment, troops, and maintaining the war effort.

• Date: 1914–1918

• Impact:

  • Total cost of the war is estimated at $186 billion (1918).

  • Major European powers, including Britain, France, and Germany, accumulated massive war debts.

  • Post-war, countries faced inflation, bankruptcies, and a need to restructure economies.

Inflation and Currency Devaluation

• Event: Many countries printed money to finance the war, leading to inflation and devaluation of currency.

• Date: 1918–1920s

• Impact:

  • Germany experienced hyperinflation in the early 1920s, particularly between 1921–1923, as a result of reparations and economic instability.

  • France also faced inflation and an increase in the national debt.

Collapse of Trade

• Event: Wartime blockades and the disruption of global trade severely affected international commerce.

• Date: 1914–1918

• Impact:

  • Trade routes were blocked, especially for Central Powers like Germany.

  • Post-war, Europe's industrial output and trade networks were devastated, leading to economic depression in many regions.

Political Repercussions

1. Collapse of Empires

2. Creation of New Nations and Revolutions

3. Rise of Extremism

Collapse of Empires

• Event: The war led to the collapse of several empires, including the Ottoman Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, Russian Empire, and German Empire.

• Date: 1917–1918 (end of major empires)

• Impact:

  • The Russian Revolution of 1917 led to the fall of the Romanov dynasty and the creation of the Soviet Union.

  • Austria-Hungary dissolved into separate states such as Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia.

  • Ottoman Empire disintegrated, leading to the creation of Turkey and the division of Middle Eastern territories.

  • The German Empire gave way to the Weimar Republic, leading to political instability.

Creation of New Nations and Revolutions

• Event: The aftermath of the war led to the formation of new countries and major political revolutions.

• Date: 1918–1920

• Impact:

  • The Treaty of Versailles and other peace treaties redrew European borders, forming new states like Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.

  • Nationalism surged in former colonies, influencing anti-colonial movements worldwide.

  • Russian Revolution (1917) and Bolshevik seizure of power led to the establishment of the Soviet Union.

Rise of Extremism

• Event: Economic hardship and political instability led to the rise of radical ideologies.

• Date: 1920s–1930s

• Impact:

  • Fascism gained ground in Italy under Mussolini in the early 1920s.

  • National Socialism rose in Germany under Adolf Hitler, capitalizing on the post-war economic crisis and resentment over the Treaty of Versailles.

Territorial Changes

• Treaty of Versailles (1919)

• Other Treaties and Territorial Adjustments

Treaty of Versailles (1919)

• Event: The Treaty of Versailles formally ended WWI and reshaped Europe’s borders.

• Date: Signed on June 28, 1919 (five years after the assassination of Franz Ferdinand).

• Impact:

  • Germany lost 13% of its land, including Alsace-Lorraine (to France), and all overseas colonies.

  • Austria-Hungary was broken up, and Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and Poland were formed from its territory.

  • Ottoman Empire was dissolved, with territories in the Middle East divided between Britain and France (Mandates).

  • Turkey emerged as a new nation from the remnants of the Ottoman Empire.

Other Treaties and Territorial Adjustments

• Event: Other treaties like the Treaty of Saint-Germain (1919), Treaty of Trianon (1920), and Treaty of Sèvres (1920) further adjusted borders.

• Date: 1919–1920

• Impact:

  • Hungary lost two-thirds of its territory, and Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia expanded.

  • The Middle East saw the creation of artificial states like Iraq, Syria, and Jordan under British and French mandates.

Social and Demographic Impact

1. Casualties and Loss of Life

2. Role of Women

3. Displacement and Refugees

Casualties and Loss of Life

• Event: The war caused unprecedented loss of life, both military and civilian.

• Date: 1914–1918

• Impact:

  • Estimated 10 million soldiers died, with 7 million civilians also perishing due to the war and its aftermath (influenza, starvation, etc.).

  • WWI caused significant disruptions in family structures, especially in countries like France and Germany, where large numbers of young men were killed.

  • War Wounds: Many soldiers returned home with serious injuries, leading to a "lost generation" and a dramatic increase in disability pensions.

Role of Women

• Event: With men away at war, women took on roles in factories, farms, and offices.

• Date: 1914–1918

• Impact:

  • Women gained the right to vote in several countries, including Britain (1918) and Germany (1919).

  • The war marked a shift in the role of women in society, though full equality was still a long way off.

Psychological Impact

• Event: The war led to widespread psychological trauma, including what was termed "shell shock" (now recognized as PTSD).

• Date: Post-1918

• Impact:

  • Millions of soldiers returned home suffering from mental health issues.

  • The war’s brutality and scale left lasting scars on society, influencing literature, art, and politics in the following decades.

Displacement and Refugees

• Event: The redrawing of borders and the destruction of empires caused large-scale displacement.

• Date: Post-1918

• Impact:

  • Millions of refugees, especially from Eastern Europe, fled their homes due to territorial changes and persecution.

  • Mass movements of people occurred across former imperial territories and newly created countries.

Summary of Long-term Effects

• Economic: Devastating impacts on national economies, with high war debts, inflation, and industrial disruption.

• Political: Collapse of empires, rise of new nations, and the rise of extreme ideologies like fascism and communism.

• Territorial: Massive territorial reorganization in Europe, the Middle East, and Africa, with the establishment of new nations and mandates.

• Social/Demographic: Tremendous loss of life, shifts in gender roles, and long-lasting psychological scars. Social instability and major refugee crises followed.

Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)

• Objective: The pact sought to outlaw war as a tool of national policy and promoted the peaceful settlement of conflicts.

• Successes:

  • Diplomatic Idealism: It symbolized the hope for global peace and was signed by 15 nations, later joined by others.

  • Moral Declaration: It set a precedent for the international community’s collective condemnation of war, making the use of force less acceptable in international relations.

Dawes Plan (1924):

• The Dawes Plan helped stabilize Germany's economy by restructuring reparations and securing international loans.

• Successes:

  • Alleviated Economic Tension: The plan alleviated the heavy reparations burden on Germany and helped integrate it back into the global economy.

  • Promoted Cooperation: The plan promoted cooperation between Germany, Britain, France, and the U.S., easing tensions in Europe.

Harsh Terms of the Treaty of Versailles (1919)

• Objective: The treaty aimed to punish Germany and ensure that it could never again threaten European peace.

• Failures:

  • Resentment in Germany: The treaty imposed harsh reparations on Germany, disarmed the country, and humiliated its people, leading to resentment and economic instability.

  • Rise of Extremism: The treaty’s punitive nature contributed to the economic hardships in Germany, which in turn facilitated the rise of Hitler and the Nazi Party, directly leading to the outbreak of World War II.

  • Failure to Create Lasting Peace: The treaty failed to address the deeper structural causes of the war, such as nationalism, militarism, and the imbalance of power in Europe, setting the stage for future conflict.

League of Nations’ Weaknesses

• Objective: To provide a forum for resolving international disputes and preventing war.

• Failures:

  • Lack of Enforcement Power: The League had no military force and depended on the will of its member states to enforce decisions. This made it ineffective in crises, such as Japan’s invasion of Manchuria (1931), Italy’s invasion of Ethiopia (1935), and Germany’s actions under Hitler.

  • U.S. Non-Participation: The United States, a key global power, did not join the League, weakening its authority and influence.

  • Failure to Prevent Aggression: The League failed to prevent the rise of totalitarian regimes in Germany, Italy, and Japan, whose aggressive actions led to World War II.

Inability to Prevent Rising Nationalism and Militarism

• Failures:

  • No Real Disarmament: Despite the ideal of disarmament promoted by the League, countries still maintained large militaries and continued militaristic policies, especially in Germany and Italy, which undermined peace efforts.

  • Appeasement of Aggression: European powers, particularly Britain and France, adopted a policy of appeasement toward the aggressive actions of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, which only emboldened these regimes and eventually led to war.