Historical Perspective of Pharmacology

Pharmacology

scientific discipline encompassing history, sources, physical & chemical properties of drugs including means in which drugs affect the biological systems. This discipline is one of the cornerstones of drug discovery process.

Pharmacology is simple defined as…

Science of drugs

Drugs

chemical entities, both endogenous and foreign or exogenous that interacts with biological systems

What is the significance of drugs?

diagnosis and treatment of disease but warrants the impact of substance abuse or environmental chemicals on societies and the environment.

How are plants used in pharmacognostic approach?

Main sources of the pharmacognostic approach, wherein extracts collected become crude drugs and are taken into the ailing body.

What is traditional medicine?

use of herbal remedies, natural therapies, and other non-Western healing practices to treat common ailments and illnesses.

What are some other forms of traditional medicine?

Some other forms of traditional medicine include Chinese oriental medicine (TCM), Japanese oriental medicine, traditional Korean medicine, traditional Thai medicine, etc.

How did medicine differ from pharmacology (herbalist)?

It was based on the knowledge of internal balance in the body (Qi)

How did pharmacology (herbalist) differ from medicine?

Focused on using plants as drugs to regain the balance.

What are nutraceuticals?

Nutraceuticals are natural compounds found in food, herbs, and other plants that have medicinal properties

What are herbal medicines?

Herbal medicines are natural remedies made from plant extracts that are used to treat various health conditions.

What is Western Medicine?

medical approach that focuses on the use of modern drugs, medical devices, and surgical procedures to treat and prevent diseases.

What is Oriental Medicine?

medical approach that uses natural remedies, such as herbs, acupuncture, and massage, to treat illnesses and maintain health.

What is the contribution of Galen in pharmacology?

Emphasized the importance of direct observation and experimentation in pharmacology.

What is the contribution of Paracelsus?

Known for his use of chemical medicines in treating diseases.

What is the extract obtained in plants called?

Crude drug

What is the oldest recorded traditional medicine? Is it still accepted?

Ayurvedic (Indian) traditional medicine. No, it is considered quackery by Indian Medical Association.

Which civilizations contributed to the establishment of the linkage between Medicine and Pharmacology?

The Greeks, the Egyptians, and Chinese civilizations

What were the superstitious beliefs regarding illness in ancient times?

evil spirits taking over the weakened body.

What were the management practices for illness in ancient times?

exorcism and/or trepanation, where the skull is opened to relieve high intracranial pressure.

What is trepanation or trephination?

old medical procedure (neurosurgery) that involves opening the skull to relieve high intracranial pressure.

What is the process of trepanation commonly done today called?

Craniotomy

old medical procedure (neurosurgery) that involves opening the skull to relieve high intracranial pressure.

12,000 to 4,000 years ago (BCE)

Which civilizations widely practiced trepanation/trephination as a medical procedure?

Greeks, Romans, and even Chinese as they believe in mystical causes.

What is a Craniotomy?

neurosurgical procedure where a bone flap, which is a portion or piece of the cranium, is temporarily removed to gain access into the brain to treat tumors and lesions.

Why is the bone flap removed during Craniotomy? What is done with the bone flap after the procedure?

to allow access to the brain for the neurosurgical procedure to be performed; The bone flap is replaced after the procedure is done.

In what situations would the Craniotomy be left open while under observation?

open while under observation if further neurosurgical procedures are still needed.

What is the importance of a sterile environment during a

A sterile environment is a must during a Craniotomy to prevent infections and other complications.

Identify the plant

Papaver somniferul L. or Opium poppy

What are medicinal plants?

traditionally used by different cultures as medicines or treatments due to their medicinal properties.

Who were the people that invoked magical powers to discover medicinal plants?

shamans, soothsayers, oracles, witchdoctors, high priests, etc.

How did the knowledge of medicinal plants become valuable?

effective in treating illnesses and was passed on to different generations and cultures.

What is the Ebers Papyrus?

oldest recorded documents of ancient Egyptian medicine, containing transcribed records of ancient Egyptian medical practice, including pharmacopoeia.

What is pharmacopoeia?

book containing directions for the identification of compound medicines, and published by the authority of a government or a medical or pharmaceutical society.

Who is Imhotep in ancient Egyptian medicine?

high priests or doctors in ancient Egyptian medicine, whose inscriptions (Rx) include "SwnW".

What is the significance of medicinal plants in ancient Egyptian medicine, specifically tho those proficient in its use?

those who became most proficient in the use of drugs (plants) to treat diseases were mediators of the spiritual world.

What is the the Ebers medical papyrus contain?

includes around 800 plant remedies and specific symptoms are indicated for their use. It also included non-invasive reatments including surgery, the bones, earlier anatomy (mummification) and an extensive collection of egyptian pharmacopoeia.

What are the different types of papyrus found in Ancient Egypt?

Ebers papyrus, Edwin Smith papyrus, London papyrus.

How were the doctors called?

Not by specialization, but by description: Hesyra (dentist), known as ivory cutter.

How were the papyrus written?

With biological effects or indications; similar to pamphlets.

What is the belief in mummification?

"deep-seated desire for eternal life in a healthy body". That is why, when they die, their body should be ingood state as well

What subfields are include in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM)

herbal medicine, acupuncture, cupping therapy, gua sha, massage, bonesetter, qigong, and diet.

What is the concept of TCM centered on?

body's vital energy (qi) circulation and its channels or flow points called meridians, which are connected to the body's organs and physiologic activities.

What is the Pen Tsao or Pen Tsao Ching? it is considered to be what?

Chinese medical text that lists over 200 herbs with 52 pharmaceutical preparations. It is considered one of the fundamental doctrinal sources of Chinese medicine.

Who is Shen Nung?

Shen Nung is the Father of Chinese Medicine and is believed to have introduced the technique of acupuncture.

What did Shen Nung authored?

Pen Tsao (Ching) that also includes the use of Cannabis (marijuana) as a treatment.

Classify the age of the humors according to season and age: INFANCY

Spring

Blood

Classify the age of the humors according to season and age: YOUTH/ADOLESCENCE

Summer

Yellow bile

Classify the age of the humors according to season and age: MATURITY/ADULTHOOD

Fall

Black bile

Classify the age of the humors according to season and age: OLD AGE

Winter

Phlegm

Who is Aesclepius

Greek god of medicine and healing, and the son of Apollo.

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He is known for his gift of healing and is often depicted holding a staff with a serpent coiled around it, which is now the symbol of modern medicine (This is often seen in medical inscriptions, even in the present).

What is the concept of incubation or temple sleep in Ancient Greek medicine?

ritual healing period practiced in ancient Greek medicine, where sick persons would sleep in temples called resorts or hospitals dedicated to Aesclepius.

What is the belief that Greeks had when they sleep in resorts, hospitals, or dorms in the temple?

Aesclepius would appear in their dreams and provide them with healing.

What is the relationship between ancient Greek medicine and modern health resorts?

Wellness and aesthetics. These resorts included diet, baths, and exercises as part of the treatment, similar to modern-day health resorts.

What is the Aesculapian snake, and why is it significant in Greek medicine?

The Aesculapian snake is a non-venomous snake named in honor of Aesclepius, the Greek god of medicine and healing.

Who is Hippocrates?

Greek physician who is regarded as the father of medicine. He established the first intellectual school in medicine and emphasized the principle that all forms of illness have a "cause".

What is the Hippocratic Corpus?

collection of approximately 60 documents that is associated with Hippocrates, although he is not the author.

What did the hippocratic corpus contain?

The collection includes the Hippocratic Oath and the concept of the theory of the 4 humors.

What are the 4 humors?

The 4 humors are blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm.

What is the belief of ancient Greek theory regarding the humors?

an individual's health and personality are influenced by the balance of these body fluids.

How did Hippocrates approach the study of human diseases?

balance of body humors, the geographic location of an individual, the birthdate or season and planets of the year, the natural behavior or qualities of the patient, the organs, and the ages as well.

What is the relationship between the humors and personality?

Each humor was associated with a particular element (earth, water, air, or fire), two "qualities" (cold, hot, moist, dry), certain body organs, and certain ages (childhood, adolescence, maturity, old age).

How does personality affect humors?

Abnormalities in the humors can be seen in the temperament of the person.

A personality state of mind and wellness can be reflected in the status of his humor.

food and diet are considered one of the most important ways to help balance the ratio of these humors. Hippocrates famously said, "Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food."

What is the medicinal property of Nicotiana rustica (Tobacco)?

Nicotiana rustica (Tobacco) has leaves that are high in nicotine, which has cholinergic properties. It can relieve high intraocular pressure, promote lacrimation, and production of saliva.

What are some examples of psychoactive plants

Nymphaea cerulea (Blue lily), Coffea arabica (coffee), Camellia sinensis (tea), Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco), and Cannabis (including hashish).

How are psychoactive plants utilized in Greek medicine?

used in ritual activities, and their simple or combined preparations can alter states of consciousness, such as sedative, stimulant, euphoric, deliriant, hypnotic, or hallucinogenic effects.

What is the medicinal use of Podophyllum peltatum (Mandrake)?

used for their cathartic or laxative effects, treating skin ulcers, and as an aphrodisiac. The high atropine content of this plant helps in controlling the autonomic nervous system (ANS).

What is the active ingredient in Mitragyna speciosa (Kratom) leaves, and what is its medicinal use?

The active ingredient in leaves is alkaloid mitragynine, which is used for its anthelminthic or antimicrobial activity, and to treat diarrhea.

What are the beneficial activities of tannins in plants?

beneficial astringent properties, which give a dry, puckering feel, like alum, relieving wounds by constriction and binding them. Tannins also have analgesic properties, acting as pain-relievers.

Which plants were used commonly by the Egyptians?

Senna pods and castor oil for constipation; Peppermint and caraway for indigestion; Digitalis plant, a cardiostimulant.

Which plants were used commonly by the Chinese?

Ma Huang plant containing Ephedrine, a bronchodilator and cough-reliever

Chang shan (from Dichroa febrifuga) for anti-fever and anti-malarial activities.

Which plants were used commonly by the Greeks?

Opium for pain (analgesic) and Squill (aka, rat poison) for cardiostimulation.

What did Galen introduce?

polypharmaceutical approach, where drug combinations or plant combinations are used to treat illnesses and to target other complications from the illness.

What did Paracelsus contribute to pharmacology?

introduced the Modus pharmacandi, which became the earliest teachings in proper Pharmacology.

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He proposed medical treatments using mineral and chemical therapy, thus providing a link of pharmacology to medical practice.

Why did Paracelcus oppose Galen’s approach?

he advocated for the use of single drugs than mixtures in treating illnesses, as it poses more danger as to either overdosed or under-dosed combined medications.

What is Paracelcus ideology on mental illnesses?

it is with clinical importance and are non-demonic sufferings.

What was Paracelsus’ take on Hippocrates approach?

He said that the cause of disease is influenced by external causes, not by imbalance of fluids.

In what medical book, did Paracelsus wrote his opposition?

Labyrinthus medicorum errantium (Labyrinth of doctors)

Who is Andreas Vesalius and what is his contribution to medicine? What did he emphasize?

Authored De humani corporis fabrica, which is one of the elaborate outputs of modern human anatomy using cadaveric dissections that also displaced Galenic principles.

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Emphasized patient history by direct observation of patients from consultation, diagnosis, and treatment.

Who is William Harvey and what is his famous work

“On the motion of heart and blood”. Demonstrated the movement of blood throughout the body and introduced IV route of administering drugs.

Why is IV route the fastest route?

It bypasses digestion and metabolism by going directly to the blood.

Who is Friedrich Wilhelm Serturner and what is his contribution to medicine?

Described the alkaloid group by successfully isolating opium and named it morphine (Greek god of sleep, morpheus).

Who is Friedrich Wilhelm Serturner and what is his contribution to medicine?

Isolated emetine, an active ingredient of Ipepac syrup. Used as anthelminthic (antiparasitic) and purgative drug by inducing vomiting/emesis.

Who is Pierre-Joseph Pelletier and what are some of the alkaloids he co-discovered with Joseph Bienaime Caventou?

co-discovered several alkaloids, including strychnine (a poison), colchicine (an anti-mitotic agent), and cinchonine (a fever treatment).

What is affected and effect of strychnine?

affects the CNS and causes muscular convulsions and eventually death through asphyxia or sheer exhaustion.

What drug did Claude Bernard discover?

Discovered curare acts as

neuromuscular junction to interrupt the stimulation of muscle by nerve impulses.

What did Claude Bernard suggest for ensuring the objectivity of scientific observations?

blind experiments to ensure the objectivity of scientific observations.

Who discovered urea?

Friedrich Wöhler discovered urea from an inorganic source.

Who discovered the pure cocaine from the coca plant?

Albert Niemann, a student of Friedrich Wöhler

What was the early name of cocaine? Who coined it?

The early name of cocaine is erythroxyline, which was coined by Gaedcke in 1855 from Erythroxylum coca.

Who is Ignaz Phillip Semmelweis and his contribution?

pioneered in the treatment of sepsis. Insisted that staff wash their hands since infectious agent is carried from dissecting rooms.

What did Sir Joseph Lister pioneer? What compounds did he use as disinfectant?

Antiseptic surgery and preventing medicine, and the use of carbolic acid or phenol to disinfect surgical instruments.

Who is recognized as the Founder of Modern Pharmacology?

Oswald Schmiedeberg is recognized as the Founder of Modern Pharmacology (neopharmacology) and reformed experimental pharmacology.

What did Oswald Schmiedeberg study?

chemistry of mucopolysaccharides and mucoproteins, elaborated the components of hyaluronic acid, and explored its relation to chondroitin sulfate, collagen, and amyloid.

Who is Paul Ehrlich and his contribution?

Discovered that the dye Trypan Red was effective against trypanosoma parasites, and an arsenic compound he called 'salvarsan' (arsephenamine) could kill the agents of syphilis.

What immune cells did Paul Ehrlich discover? What did he investigated?

Mast cells, and investigated antitoxins and antibodies.

Who is John Jacob Abel and what did he isolated? (3)

isolated epinephrine (adrenal glands) and histamine (pituaitary gland), and preparation of pure crystalline insulin

Who co-discovered insulin?

Sir Frederick Banting and Charles Best