Lab Exam 2

upper respiratory tract

* Nose
* turbinate bones
* pharynx
* larynx

lower respiratory tract

* trachea
* carina cartilage
* bronchi - primary and secondary
* bronchioles, alveoli
* Lungs and pleural cavity

functions of respiratory system

ventilation and gas exchange

nose

* External is connective tissue and cartilage 
* Hyaline cartilage or dense fibrous connective tissue


* Vibrissae 
* Coarse hairs right outside the nostril that help trap stuff 


* the internal nose is split into chambers by the vomer and perpendicular plate of the ethmoid
* mostly cartilage except for the bridge
* visible nares (nostrils)
* lined with mucous membrane

turbinate bones

* aka nasal conchae
* superior, inferior, middle
* Ensure air binds into the mucosal membrane
* Serous liquid helps to filter the air
* Humidifies air and warms it

pharynx

* Common tube that carries water, food, and air 
* nasopharynx
* oropharynx
* laryngopharynx

nasopharynx

(blue)

* Lined with pseudostratified epithelium 


* Soft palate closes to prevent food entering the space 


* Pharyngeal tonsil 


* Adenoids 
* Giant patches of lymphatic tissue (all tonsillar tissue) 


* Opening of pharyngotympanic tube (eustachian tube) 


* Important to allow equalization of pressure 

oropharynx

(green)

* Lined with stratified squamous 
* Back of the oral cavity 


* Palatine tonsils 


* Lingual tonsils 

laryngopharynx

* Behind the larynx 
* Belongs to both digestive and respiratory system 
* Smallest of 3 regions 


* Epiglottis 
* Protects airway from food 


* Area where the digestive tract and respiratory tract split permanently in the body 

larynx

* Allows air to pass through 
* “voice box” made up of 9 cartilages
* 1 thyroid, 1 epiglottis, 1cricoid, 2 arytenoids, 2 corniculate, 2 cuneiforms
* Vocal cords - are ligaments, which span the inside of the larynx, controlled \n by skeletal muscle, vibrate and produce sounds
* First part of laryngopharynx cavity that belongs solely to the respiratory system 

\

epiglottis

* Cartilage that closes the larynx to ensure food does not enter when swallowing 
* Connected to hyoid bone 

thyroid cartilage

The most anterior portion of laryngx 

cricoid cartilage

* Ringlike cartilage 
* Wraps around trachea 

arytenoid cartilage

* paired 
* Look like a triangle 

corniculate cartilage

* paired 
* Connect to ligaments that help move vocal cords and folds 
* Help to phonate 
* Small cartilage on apex of triangle (arytenoids) 

cuneiform cartilage

* paired
* Connected to vestibular fold 
* Play a role in sound generation 
* Connected to the back of the throat 

trachea

* Pseudostratified columnar epithelium 
* Has cilia 
* Cells secrete mucous onto the surface, so they are needed to sweep stuff away from the lungs back towards the throat 


* Membrane is thin 
* Surrounded by thick hyaline cartilage C shaped rings 


* If they were full rings the esophagus would not be able to expand 
* Holding tracheal membranes open 

carina cartilage

* Last tracheal cartilage 
* Location of strong cough reflex 


* Will force out any substance that’s not air 

primary bronchi

* split into secondary branches after entering the lungs (2L, 3R)
* split into tertiary branches to serve lobules of lungs
* branching continues to level of bronchioles

secondary bronchi

* located near the middle of the lungs
* one secondary branch per lobe
* 3 secondaries on the right lung because 3 lobes
* 2 secondaries on the left

bronchioles

* last part of bronchi branches
* terminal are the last non respiratory ones
* terminate into respiratory version

alveoli

* originate from respiratory branches
* cluster in sacs
* 1 cell layer thick to allow diffusion of gases
* gas exchange with pulmonary capillaries

respiratory membrane

* alveoli and pulmonary capillaries
* Two layers of simple squamous against each other (one of the capillaries and the alveoli)
* Most of the alveoli squamous are type I
* Specialized cells are type II
* Secrete surfactant
* Like soap
* Bring down surface tension
* Prevents alveolar walls from collapsing in on itself because of small amount of fluid inside
* Do not become functional until 7 months after fertilization
* Alveolar macrophages
* Monocytes that left the blood
* Clean up anything that was passed inadvertently

lungs

* located in the mediastinum
* The left has 2 lobes and the right has 3
* left has cardiac notch from the heart pushing on it
* bronchi enter at the hilum (medial side of the lung)

pleural cavity

* the covering of the lungs and are arranged in 2 layers, the outer or parietal and the inner or visceral pleura
* small amounts of serous fluid are secreted between layers to reduce friction
* puncture causes a pneumothorax
* lung collapse prevented by negative intrapleural pressure and surfactant

pneumothorax

* collapsing of the lung
* when intrapleural and interpulmonary pressure equal each other

surfactant

* decreases surface tension of water in alveoli
* prevents water droplets form coming togetehr and closing alveoli

negative interpleural pressure

acts as a suction to keep the lungs from collapsing

conducting zone

passages from nasal cavity to terminal bronchioles

* no gas exchange occurs

respiratory zone

* Sites of gas exchange
* Respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli

muscles of inspiration

* Diaphragm is the single most important muscle for breathing
* C3, C4, C5 the phrenic nerve keeps the diaphragm alive
* External intercostals
* Run the same direction as external obliques
* Help pull up on ribcage to increase chest size

muscles of expiration

* a passive process to release air from the body
* relies on the relaxation of the chest and lungs
* rectus abdominus
* internal intercostals
* Help during forced expiration

boyle’s law

P = 1/V

volume decreases

when pressure inside lungs increases

pressure decreases

when volume in lungs increases

tidal volume

TV

* ML per breath
* Like stroke volume
* typically 500mL

expiratory reserve volume

ERV

* Less than IRV
* The amount of air you can let out when you breathe out as hard as possible
* about 1200mL

inspiratory reserve volume

IRV

* Body size related
* IRV = VC-ERV-TV
* The total amount of air you can take in when you breathe in as much as possible
* about 3100mL

vital capacity

VC

* IRV + TV + ERV
* VC≈3100-4800ml
* Main effectors: Height (size) and age

residual volume

RV

* about 1200mL
* volume of air remaining in the lungs after maximum forceful expiration
* prevents lung collapse

alveolar minute respiration

AVR

* AVR = RR (TV-DAS)
* DAS = 150ml in most adults
* AVR = 12breaths\*(500ml-150ml) = 4200ml/min
* DAS = air trapped in conducting zone structures
* Dead air space

minute respiratory volume

MRV

* MRV = RR \* TV
* MRV = 12breaths \* 500 ml/b = 6000 ml/min

glomerulus

* capillary bed in kidneys
* Other end is another arteriole (efferent/outgoing) not a venule
* filters your blood

podocytes

* the visceral layer of Bowman’s capsule and have many filtration slits in them
* Room for molecules and water to move through filtration spaces
* Complex proteins and fats are too big to diffuse

renal corpuscle

* filtration unit of vertebrate nephrons, functional units of the kidney
* consists of a knot of capillaries (glomerulus) surrounded by a double-walled capsule (Bowman's capsule) that opens into a tubule

peritubular capillaries

* Arise form the efferent arterioles
* run close to the nephron tubules and collected the substances that pass out of the nephron
* Vasa recta – peritubular capillaries found in the deepest parts of the medulla have a different structure than other peritubular capillaries
* The peritubular capillaries reabsorb the filtrate

afferent arteriole

* brings blood to glomerulus
* bigger
* More smooth muscle
* Bigger diameter
* Much greater impact on GFR (glomerular filtration rate)
* Dilate -> GFR increases
* Constrict -> GFR decreases
* When GFR goes down pressure in tubules decreases as well

efferent arteriole

* brings blood away from glomerulus
* Less able to constrict and dilate
* Does not have as much effect on GFR

bladder

* can hold up to 1L of urine
* Formed of transitional epithelium
* Can stretch
* trigone
* moves urine to urethra

nephron

* Functional unit of kidneys
* Basic histological and functional unit of the kidney
* Majority is simple cuboidal cells
* For active transport
* Urine is known as filtrate all through the nephron
* About 1 million nephrons per kidney

proximal convoluted tubule

* Simple cuboidal epithelium
* Tons of microvilli
* Good for surface area and transportation


* Tons of mitochondria
* For active transport


* actively reabsorbs glucose, A.A., water

loop of henle

long U-shaped portion of the tubule that conducts urine within each nephron of the kidney

descending limb

* Made up of simple squamous
* Good for diffusion, filtration, osmosis
* passive reabsorption of water by osmosis

ascending limb

* Simple cuboidal cells
* NaCl moves out by active transport
* As soon as it comes up and out of the renal cortex it becomes part of the DCT

distal convoluted tubule

* Simple cuboidal cells
* Not as much surface area of PCT
* Lots of mitochondria
* Dump into collecting duct
* Water and NaCl move out under control of ADH and aldosterone

collecting ducts

* not technically part of the nephron
* Each kidney has multiple
* Collects fluid from all the nephrons
* also under hormonal control
* Once it reaches the bottom of collecting duct and into the pyramid it becomes urine

secretion

waste ions and hydrogen ions pass from the capillaries into the renal tubule

filtrate

* protein-free solution similar to blood plasma
* the result of the blood that filters through glomerulus

reabsorption

the process by which the nephron removes water and solutes from the tubular fluid (pre-urine) and returns them to the circulating blood

urine

* end result of filtration through nephrons
* helps excrete wastes

cortex

* labeled I
* most outer layer of kidney
* part of nephron located here
* proximal convoluted tubule
* distal convoluted tubule

medulla

* labeled J
* most inner layer
* part of nephron located here
* loop of henle (nephron loop)
* contains pyramids

renal hilum

Area where vasculature enters and exits

renal pelvis

* labeled H
* where urine collects in kidney to pass through ureter

renal artery

identify b

renal vein

identify C

ureters

* labeled D
* Use peristalsis to push urine into the bladder
* Most do not feel the urge to pee until bladder has about a cup
* Attached to posterior abdominal wall
* Made of transitional epithelium
* this and opening of urethra make up urinary trigone

renal pyramids

* Labeled E
* Triangular shape
* In between are renal column
* Vasculature passes through the columns
* Nephrons are located at the pyramids

minor calyx

identify F

major calyx

identify G

colors of urine

Normal - straw or amber colored

Reddish amber - urobilinogen or porphyrin

Brownish yellow, green - bile pigments

Red to brown - blood or blood pigments

specific gravity

the amount of solutes in urine

glucose in urine

* Normally absent, seen in diabetes mellitus, and sometimes after exercise or a meal high in sugar content
* Glycosuria – excess glucose in the urine

protein in urine

* Excessive exercise, nephritis, trauma
* Albuminuria – excess albumin in the urine

ketones in urine

* Produced during excessive fat metabolism, diabetes mellitus
* Ketonouria – excess ketones in the urine
* This found with glycosuria is diagnostic for diabetes mellitus

blood in urine

* Almost always pathologic, due to trauma or urinary tract infections
* Can indicate contamination with menstrual flow
* Hematuria – excess RBC’s in the urine
* Hemoglobinuria- (excess hemoglobin) often seen along with excess RBC’s
* Most chemstrips measure this and blood together

nitrite in urine

can indicate a bacterial infection such as UTI

bile pigments in urine

often seen in liver diseases such as jaundice

* Bilirubinuria – excess bile pigments in urine
* Bilirubin is formed during the hemolysis of RBCs and is excreted by the liver into the gallbladder
* Can be signaled by a yellow foam on top of the urine sample after shaking
* Urobilinogen – produced in intestines, some is excreted into the urine and gives urine its characteristic color
* Some are converted to stercobilin which gives feces its color
* Too much can be a sign of liver pathology

leukocytes in urine

usually only seen when there is an infection of the urinary tract

* Pyuria – WBC’s in the urine

casts

* hardened cell fragments, usually cylindrical found in the urine
* Almost always pathologic
* due to pathological problems such as nephritis, \\n dehydration
* Can only observe casts by doing a sediment study

GFR increases along with pressure

effect of dilating afferent arteriole on GFR and pressure

GFR decreases along with pressure

effect of increasing the efferent radius on GFR and pressure

GFR increased

effect on GFR as beaker pressure was increased

GFR will increase

effect increased blood pressure on GFR

afferent arteriole would have to constrict to compensate

what needs to happen to the afferent arteriole to maintain GFR if pressure is increased

other mechanisms that play a role in maintaining GFR

* renin-angiotensin mechanism
* myogenic regulation (dilation and constriction of arterioles)
* baroreceptors in blood vessels of systemic circulation (neural control)
* tubuloglomerular feedback (macula densa cells kidneys)

urine concentration increased

what happened to urine concentration as interstitial gradient concentration increased

urine volume decreased

what happened to urine volume as interstitial gradient concentration increased

interstitial concentration gradient

what variable did we change

glucose decreased

what happened to amount of glucose present in the urine as glucose carriers increased

glucose carriers stay the same; carriers become oversaturated so glucose would still be present in the urine because there is elevated levels of glucose in the blood

glucose can be elevated in blood of diabetic patients. relate this to information and amount of glucose carriers

the volume of urine decreased in comparison to the baseline

in aldosterone run how does volume of urine differ from previously measured baseline

potassium in urine increases; body needs to compensate for holding onto extra positive ions (NA+)

difference in total amount of potassium during aldosterone run

potassium is much higher due to decrease in water

difference in total amount of potassium in ADH run

boiling denatured enzymes

What effect did boiling have on the different enzymes?

it had no effect

What effect did freezing have on the salivary amylase?

ideal pH, temp, and location of enzymes

Amylase: pH of 7.0 and 37C; works best in the mouth

Pepsin: pH of 2.0 and 37C; works best in the stomach

Lipase:  pH of 7.0 and 37C; works in the small intestine

breaks down fatty acids to speed digestion

What is the role of bile in digestion?

starch - IKI; maltose- benedict’s solution

What did we use as an indicator of starch presence, maltose presence?

digestive tract

* alimentary canal
* is composed of a hollow tube that runs from the mouth to the anus and is technically "outside" the body