Motivation, Emotion, and Personality - AP Psychology

Motivation

a need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it towards a goal

Instinct

a complex, unlearned behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species

Drive-Reduction Theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need; can be primary (hunger, thirst, warmth) or secondary (money, entertainment)

Homeostasis

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

Incentive Theory

A theory of motivation stating that behavior is directed toward attaining desirable stimuli and avoiding unwanted stimuli. (desires pull and incentives push)

Incentive

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

Optimum Arousal Theory

human motivation aims to seek optimum levels of excitement; not driven to eliminate it but seek out a satisfying amount once biological needs are satisfied

Yerkes-Dodson Law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases

Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active

Emotion

a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience

Carol Izard Study (1977)

Found 10 emotions present in infancy (joy, anger, interest, disgust, fear, surprise, sadness) which supported idea that emotions are biologically predisposed

Spillover Effect

arousal response to one event spills over into our response to the next event (arousal from football game can fuel anger which leads to rioting)

Two Routes to Emotion

1) emotions are immediate and without conscious appraisal 2) our appraisal determines our response to emotions

James-Lange Theory

Stimulus causes physical response which then causes emotion (physiological activity PRECEDES emotion)

Cannon-Bard Theory

Stimulus causes physical response and emotion at the SAME time

Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

Stimulus causes physical response which makes you THINK about which emotion to respond with

Cognitive Appraisal Theory

Specific types of appraisal thoughts can be linked to specific types of emotions (serve as basis for emotions)

Opponent-Process Theory of Emotion

Theory that when a strong emotional response to a particular stimulus disrupts emotional balance, an opposite emotional response is eventually activated to restore emotional equilibrium; we trigger one emotion by suppressing its opposite

Richard Lazarus Theory

thought must come before any emotion or physical arousal

Cognitive-Mediational Theory

a stimulus must be interpreted (appraised) by a person in order to result in a physical response and an emotional reaction

Embodied Emotions

Physiological reaction; heart pounding, sweating, nervousness, dilated pupils, respiratory change, etc.

Paul Ekman

Showed that we have seven universal emotions (happiness, fear, disgust, contempt, sadness, anger, and surprise)

Facial Feedback Theory

The view that expressing a specific emotion, especially facially, causes the subjective experience of that emotion.

Glucose

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger.

Set Point

the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.

Basal Metabolic Rate

the body's resting rate of energy expenditure

Hunger Motivation System

stomach contractions (pangs) send signals to the brain making us aware of our hunger

Biology of Hunger

hypothalamus monitors a number of of hormones related to hunger (orexin, ghrelin, insulin, leptin, pyy)

Y.C. Tsang

removed rat stomachs, connected the esophagus to the small intestines, and the rats still felt hungry (and ate food).

Lateral Hypothalamus (LH)

The part of the hypothalamus that produces hunger signals (if destroyed then no interest in eating)

Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH)

a brain region that depresses hunger when activated (if destroyed then excessive eating)

Anorexia Nervosa

an eating disorder in which a normal-weight person diets and becomes significantly underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve

Bulimia Nervosa

an eating disorder characterized by episodes of oan eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise

Sexual Motivation

Can be through external stimuli (browsing of erotic material) or imagined stimuli (brain influences arousal/desire)

Sex Hormones

hormones that regulate the development and functioning of reproductive organs and that stimulate the development of male and female sexual characteristics (testosterone/estrogen)

Sexual Response Cycle

the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson - excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

Refractory Period

a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm

Sexual Dysfunction

a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning

Social Motivation

the innate human motivation to interact with other humans

Acceptance

sense of belonging with others increases self-esteem whereas exclusion decreases it

Ostracism

Social exclusion leads to demoralization, depression, and at times nasty behavior.

Social Bonds

boosted our ancestors' survival rates and resulted in behaviors of protections, procuring food, and reproducing

Stress

process by which we 1) appraise and 2) cope to stressors (environmental threats, events, situations, and challenges)

Top Five Stressors

catastrophic events, significant life changes, daily hassles, frustration, conflict

Symptoms of Stress

stomach problems, weakened immune system, muscle pain, fatigue, headaches, skin irritation, decreased sex drive, anxiety

Hans Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome

Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion.

Alarm Stage of GAS

body mobilizes its resources to cope with stressor; triggers sympathetic nervous system and begins release of hormones like epinephrine, cortisol, and adolsterone

Resistance Stage of GAS

body seems to adapt to presence of stressor; triggers parasympathetic nervous system and cortisol is still released

Exhaustion Stage of GAS

the body depletes it's resources; tired and sleepiness, unable to cope, anxious and depressed

Tend-and-Befriend Response

under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend)

Motivational Conflicts Theory (Kurt Lewin)

Approach-Approach, Approach-Avoidance, Avoidance-Avoidance

Approach-Approach Conflict

Conflict when a choice must be made between two desirable alternative (choosing which college to attend)

Approach-Avoidance Conflict

Conflict when a goal is both desirable and undesirable (eat cake but also wanting to lose weight)

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict

Conflict when a choice must be made between two undesirable alternatives (surgery or live with pain)

Internal Locus of Control

the perception that we control our own fate; less stress, more positive outlook, fewer psychological symptoms

External Locus of Control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate; more stress, pessimistic, more psychological symptoms

Coping

dealing with the source of stress or anxiety, not merely alleviating the symptoms

Problem-Focused Coping

Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor (take hold of situation yourself)

Emotion-Focused Coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction (avoid situation by taking mind off it)

Palliative Measure

treatments to alleviate pain, to distract, or numb senses (medicinal/psychoactive drugs or alcohol)

Psychophysiological Illness

literally, "mind-body" illness; any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches

Psychoneuroimmunology

the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health

Lymphocytes

The two types of white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system: B lymphocytes form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections; T lymphocytes form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances

Coronary Heart Disease

the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries

Type A

Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people

Type B

Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people

Personality

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

Humanist Perspective Personality

Personality is focused on the potential for healthy personal growth and striving for self-actualization (Abraham Maslow, Carl Rodgers)

Abraham Maslow on Personality

Believed people are motivated internally by hierarchy of needs and seek self-actualization and self-transcendence

Self-Actualization

according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential

Self-Transcendence

finding meaning, purpose, and empathy beyond the self

Carl Rodgers on Personality

Agreed that people are basically good w/ self-actualization tendencies unless thwarted by the environment; created the Person-Centered Perspective (Client-Centered Approach)

Person-Centered Perspective

personality develops best in a growth-promoting climate requiring acceptance, genuineness, empathy

Congruence (Person-Centered Therapy)

self-concept meshes well with actual real life experience

Incongruence (Person-Centered Therapy)

self-concept does not mesh well with actual real life experience

Empathy

sharing or mirroring of other's feelings

Unconditional Positive Regard (Rogers)

attitude of total acceptance toward another person regardless of faults

Self-Concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

Social-Cognitive Perspective

views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context.

Behavioral Perspective Personality

through external influences and experiences individuals learn socially desirable behaviors of their culture and adopt them as part of their personality (B.F. Skinner,

B.F. Skinner on Personality

personality arises from operant conditioning (reinforcement); environmental influences condition us into wanting some things and not others

Social Learning Perspective Personality

as individuals differ in their learning experiences and how they process them, we acquire different behaviors and, hence, different personalities (Albert Bandura, Julian Rotter)

Albert Bandura on Personality

personality acquired through reinforcement and observational learning (modeling & intimidation); created social cognitive theory (self-efficacy)

Social Cognitive Theory

acquiring new behaviors by watching others and considering past successes and failures

Self-Efficacy

view of your ability to succeed at a given behavior of believing in yourself

Reciprocal Determinism

Bandura's idea that personality can change depending on one's thoughts, the environment, and behavior

Spotlight Effect

overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us)

Self-Serving Bias

our tendency to accept responsibility for good deeds & successes rather than bad deeds and failures

Julian Rotter on Personality

Believes development of self is largely based on our sense of personal control with factors to consider whether we control the environment or the environment controls us

Positive Psychology

the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive

Psychodynamic Perspective

personality emerges from the interaction between the conscious and unconscious mind including our associated motives and emotions

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

founder of psychoanalysis, first complete theory of personality, created theory that stated person's thoughts and behaviors emerge from tension created by unconscious motives and unresolved childhood trauma

Unconscious

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.

Psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

Free Association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing

Dream Analysis

analyze the unconscious mind through interpreting manifest content (remembered) and latent content (unconscious desires) of dreams; "dreams are the royal road to the unconscious”

Freudian Belief of Id, Ego, Superego

personality arises from a conflict between impulse (pleasure-seeking urges of the id) and restraint (control over urges by superego) where the ego mediates between the two

The Id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

Pleasure Principle

Freud's theory regarding the id's desire to maximize pleasure and minimize pain in order to achieve immediate gratification and ignore the consequences

The Ego

the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.