anatomy exam 1

What is an organ system?

A group of two or more organs working together to perform a function.

What is an organ?

A group of two or more tissues working together to perform a function.

What is a tissue?

A group of cells with similar structure that work together to perform a function.

What is a simple tissue?

A tissue made of a single layer of cells.

What is a stratified tissue?

A tissue made of multiple layers of cells.

What are the four types of tissues?

-Muscle
-Epithelial
-Nervous
-Connective

What is epithelial tissue? What does it do?

-Simple squamous (Lung) cell
---Diffuses oxygen and carbon dioxide
---Cells are very thin to make this process happen quicker
-Simple cuboidal (kidney) cell
---Reabsorbtion of water and nutrients
-Simple columnar (intestine) cell
---Forms membranes, surface barriers, and glands
---can be either simple or stratified.-Muscle

What is muscle tissue? What does it do?

-Used to contract and relax
-Used for structure and movement

What is connective tissue? What does it do?

-Cells that are spaced widely throughout a matrix
-Help bind, partition, protect, and support the matrix
-Can be under epithelium, adipose, tendon, bone, and blood

What is nervous tissue? What does it do?

-Made of neurons and glial cells
-Sends electrical impulses, sending messages throughout the body

What is a negative feedback loop?

A system where the output signals the system to stop changing.

What is a positive feedback loop?

The uncommon feedback loop. Used when a change is detected and information is sent to the control center that activates the effector to "stimulate" the change until it stops. Such as contractions during labor and in blood clotting.

What side of the heart is the pulmonary circuit pump? What does this circuit do?

Right Side, and takes deoxygenated blood, brings it to the lungs, and returns it to the heart.

What side of the heart is the systemic circuit pump?

Left Side, and pumps oxygenated blood, brings it to the rest of the bodies capillaries where the oxygen is removed, and then returns it to the heart.

What factors regulate heart activity?

-Epinephren and thyroxin (hormones)
-Calcium and Potassium (Ions)
-Age
-Gender
-Exercise
-Temperature

Cardiac muscles are connected through what? What do these do?

Cardiac muscles are connected through gap junctions, which allow stimulation to be carried by electrical means.

What are the two major factors that affect cardiac output?

-Heart Rate
-Stroke Volume

What is the atrium?

upper chamber of the heart

What is an artery?

A blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart

What are the three main functions of the cardiovascular system?

-Transports:
---Oxygen, nutrients, metabolic waste, and hormones
-Regulation:
---pH of blood stays around 7.35 to 7.45
---Body temperature
---Blood volume
-Protection:
---Clotting factors that prevent blood from leaving cuts
---White blood cells (immune system)

What are the four components of blood?

-Red Blood Cells
-White blood cells
-Plasma
-Serum

What are red blood cells?

-Most abundant cell in the blood
-Carries oxygen
-Heaviest component

What are white blood cells?

-Leukocytes and lymphocytes (immune cells)
-Smallest amount of component in blood
-Middleweight component

What is serum in blood?

-Contains nutrients, water, gases, hormones, and waste
-Major part of blood tests
-Lightest component

What is plasma in blood?

-Contains nutrients, water, gases, hormones, and waste
-Has the coagulation factor

Do mammalian red blood cells (erythrocytes) have nuclei? Do bird cells?

Yes;No

What is a capillary bed?

-Network of capillaries
-Nutrients and oxygen are exchanged
-Regulates blood flow and how many nutrients can be deposited in certain areas.

What are the three types of capillaries?

-Continuous
-Fenestrated
-Sinusoidal

What are continuous capillaries and what do they do?

-Most common capillaries
-Regulates size so only very small molecules can be transported

What are fenestrated capillaries and what do they do?

-Means windows
-"windows" are covered with glycoproteins
-Allows for rapid movements of small molecules
-Found in small intestines and kidneys

What are sinusoid capillaries?

-larger fenestration windows
-Found in blood, bone marrow, and spleen
-Movement of larger molecules, such as cells

What are the two types of fluid movement?

-Hydrostatic pressure
-Osmotic pressure

What is hydrostatic pressure?

Force that pushes fluids through the capillaries

What is osmotic pressure?

-Proteins that are either in the tissues or blood vessels that pull nutrients to it because it is deficient
-Low osmotic pressure can cause swelling, while high osmotic pressure can cause high blood pressure

What is the pathway for blood through the heart?

-Atrium
-Ventricle
-Lung
-Atrium
-Ventricle
-Rest of body

What does the atrium do?

-receives blood from the body
-does not have a strong contraction

What do the tricuspid/bicuspid valves do?

-Directs flow of blood
-Prevents backflow
-Shut whenever the ventricle contracts

What do the ventricles do?

-Contracts and sends blood throughout the body
-Has thicker walls than the atrium
-Left side is even thicker than right side because left side pumps blood to the entire body while the right only pumps blood to the lungs

T/F: Blood volume is the same between the different parts of the heart

True

What do the aortic/pulmonary valves do?

-control blood flow out of the ventricles
-this happens with hydrostatic pressure
-when there is no more pressure, blood relaxes and the valves shut

What are the two cardiomyocytes?

-Contractile cardiac myocytes
-Autorythmic cells

What are contractile cardiac myocytes?

-Contracting cells
-99 percent of the cells in the heart
-Extended absolute refractory period

What is the extended absolute refractory period?

-Period of time that contractile cardiac myocytes can't be stimulated
-Tetanus is when part of the heart stays contracted, which is prevented by EARP
-Prevents uncoordinated contracting

What are autorythmic cells?

-1% of the cells in the heart
-pacemaker cells: uses gap junctions to send electrical currents through the nervous system to stimulate contractile cells
-Unstable resting membrane potential: always changing, constantly resetting themselves, constantly drifting towards threshold

What makes up the Intrinsic Conduction system? What is the goal?

-The goal is to get the heart to contract in synchrony.
-Starts with the sinoatrial node (SA), sets pace for entire system, found in right atrium
-Spread from right and left atriums through gap junctions
-Atrioventricular (AV) node takes the current from the SA node to set pace for ventricle
-Travels down bundle branches, starts at the apex (bottom) of the heart and splits into right and left ventricle
-Subendocordial conducting network (Purkinje fibers) send signals out at a specific time to make sure each contraction cell is stimulated at the same time.
--BONUS: VENTRICLES AND ATRIUMS HAVE DONT SHARE ELECTRICAL CURRENTS

What is electrocardiography (EKG) used for?

Used to see when the heart is beating and if the currents are working properly.

What is Cardiac Output?

-Volume of blood pumped by each ventricle in one minute
-Heart Rate X Stroke Volume

What are three factors that affect stroke volume?

-Preload
-Contractility
-Afterload

The ____ carry blood to the heart and the ____ carry blood away from the heart.

Veins; Arteries

What side does electrical flow start for the intrinsic conducting system?

Right side

Where are the semilunar valves located?

The base of the aorta and pulmonary artery.

What are the primary gasses exchanged in the respiratory system?

-Oxygen
-CO2

What are the four processes of respiration?

-Pulmonary ventilation
-External respiration
-transportation through the blood
-Internal respiration

What muscle moves the lungs?

Diaphragm

What are the three ways that carbon dioxide is transported in blood?

-Bicarbonate
-Plasma
-Hemoglobin

Oxygen goes from ___ pressure areas to ___ pressure areas.

High; Low

What is internal respiration?

Exchange of gases between blood and body cells (tissues)

What is pulmonary ventilation?

The act of breathing.

What does the respiratory system do?

-Takes in oxygen for the body
-Removes carbon dioxide from the body

What is external respiration?

Oxygen and carbon dioxide is exchanged between the lungs and the blood.

What is the transportation of gases?

-Move gas through the blood to their end destination
-Carbon dioxide is dissolved into bicarbonate

What are the two zones that the respiratory zone is broken up into?

-Conducting zones
-Respiratory zones

What is a conducting zone?

The larger airways that warm, humidify, and filter air without participating in gas exchange (i.e nose, trachea, bronchi, etc)

What is a respiratory zone?

An actual site of gas exchange (respiratory bronchioles and alveoli)

What are the three functions of the upper respiratory system?

-Heating the air we breathe in
-Humidifying the air we breathe in
-Filtering the air we breathe in

Why do alveoli have pores?

Allows gas to flow between each alveoli, which keeps all alveoli inflated.

What are the three types of alveoli cells? What do they do?

-Type 1 alveolar cell
--Gas exchange occurs here
-Type 2 alveolar cell
--Produce and secrete pulmonary surfactant, which breaks up water and stops it from forming and binding. (won't let alveoli collapse)
-Macrophage
--Stops infection in the lung

What are the three properties of the mammalian respiratory system?

-Compliance (ability to stretch)
-Elasticity (ability to return to original size)
-Surface tension (molecules of like substance join together)

What is homeostasis?

The tendency toward a relatively stable equilibrium between interdependent elements.

What is alveolar surface tension? What does it do?

-Alveoli get smaller
-Surfactant is a detergent like lipid and protein complex that reduces surface tension and discourages alveolar collapse

Is inspiration active or passive?

Active

What is the process of inspiration?

-Diaphragm contracts
-Expands the thoracic volume
-Intrapleural volume increases
-Pressure decreases
-Air rushes into the lungs to try and get us back to atmospheric pressure

What is boyle's law?

If pressure increases, volume decreases. If pressure decreases, volume increases.

Is expiration active or passive in mammals?

Passive

What is the expiration process?

-Diaphragm relaxes
-Thoracic volume decreases
-Shrinks intrapleural volume
-Pressure increases
-Air leaves lungs to try and get back to atmospheric pressure

What is atmospheric pressure?

760 mmHg (0 mm hg)

What is intrapulmonary pressure?

-760 mmHg (0 mm hg)
-The pressure within the alveoli
-This pressure fluctuates based on breathing
-Goal is to equal atmospheric pressure

What is intraplueral pressure?

-Pressure on the outside of the lung in the pleural cavity
- 756 mmhg (-4 mm Hg)

What is transpulmonary pressure?

- 4 mmhg
-The difference between 0 mm hg and -4 mm hg
-This is the difference between intrapulmonary pressure and intrapleural pressure

What is tidal volume?

Normal volume of air moving in and out of the lungs

What is inspiratory reserve volume?

-Amount of air forcefully inspired
-Max amount lung will stretch to allow air in

What is expiratory reserve volume?

-Amount of air forcibly expired
-Maximum amount lung will shrink to expire air

What is residual volume?

Amount of air that is left in the lungs as long as everything hasn't collapsed.

What is dead space?

Areas of the respiratory system that contain air that doesnt contribute to gas exchange (alveolar, anything in conducting zones make up anatomical dead space)

What is alveolar ventilation? What is alveolar ventilation rate?

-Flow of gases into and out of the alveoli
-AVR = frequency x (TV - dead space)
-Ex) 15 bpm x (500 mL - 150 mL)= 5.25 L of gas exchange per min

What is external respiration?

Gas exchange between lungs and blood

What is internal respiration?

Exchange of gases between blood and tissues

What processes are internal and external respiration both subject to?

-Basic gas laws
-Composition of alveolar gas

What are Dalton's laws of partial pressures?

Pressure exerted by each gas in a mixture is directly proportional to its percentage in the mixture.

What is boyle's law with oxygen?

Oxygen moves naturally to tissue because partial pressure of oxygen in tissue is less than 40 mm hg

What is henry's law?

The amount of gas dissolved in a liquid depends on the solubility of the gas in the liquid, the temperature of the gas, and the partial pressure of the gas.

What are the two ways that oxygen is transported?

-Dissolved in plasma (happens 1 1/2 percent of the time)
-Loosely bound to each Fe in hemoglobin in red blood cells (98.5% of the time)

What are the two unloading reactions of the blood stream?

PO2 of the environment
-Decreases partial pressure of O2
Affinity of O2 to hemoglobin
-Decrease w/ low pH (lactic acid does this/gives muscles more oxygen)
-Decrease w/ higher temperatures
-Decrease by higher concentrations of 2,3 diphosphoglyceric acid

What are the ways carbon dioxide is transported?

Dissolved as CO2 in plasma
-Henry's law
-10 percent of total carbon dioxide
Carbamino hemoglobin
-Carbon dioxide unit attaches to hemoglobin
-20 percent of total carbon dioxide
Bicarbonate ion
-(HCO3-)
-70 percent of total carbon dioxide
-Most likely to occur in a red blood cell
--This reaction is sped up because of CARBONIC ANHYDRASE (enzyme)
--Carbonic acid forms and brakes into a bicarbonate and 3 hydrogen ions
-Oxygen is picked up and carbon dioxide is released in the lungs

What is the chemical equation for the bicarbonate ion?

CO2 + H2O --- (carbonic anhydrase as the catalyst) --- H2CO3 (carbonic acid) -- H+ + HCO3

What is the chemical equation for the chloride shift?

-HCO3- --- RBC faster H+ (leaves faster)
-+ RBC (more positive now)
-Cl- move in the RBC

What are respiratory rhythms regulated by?

-Higher brain centers
-Chemoreceptors (sense chemical changes like partial pressure of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH)
-Pulmonary irritant reflexes
-Stretch receptors

Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)

Hypothalamus hormone regulating thyroid gland growth

Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH)

Hypothalamus hormone inhibiting GH/somatotrophin

Prolactin releasing hormone (PRH)

Releases prolactin