History test 2

Osman

• Turkish Prince, established principality called the Ossomans, founder of the Ottoman Empire

• Osman Bey: establishes principality in N.E. Anatolia

Sultan

Warlord; Military and political leader with absolute authority over a Muslim country

• Wielder of Authority

Caliph

The successor of the prophet Muhammad; A supreme political and religious leader in a Muslim government

The Ottoman empire is a ______ people

Turkic

Avenues of expansion of Ottoman Empire

(1) Balkans (2) Safavids (3) Mamluks Syria and Egypt

Balkans

Serbia ("field of blackbirds" 1389); Constantinople (1453)

• Byzantine was a shadow of its former self, not what it was before. The Ottomans took over Constantinople.

Safavids

Persia was controlled by Safavids, who were ethnic Turks. The ethnic Turks ruled the Persians and converted the Persians to Shia Muslims.

• The Safavids lost Iraq to the Ottomans

Mamluks Syria and Egypt

Ottomans wanted to control the middle east

Structure of Ottoman Empire

Askeri, Devshirme, Siphahis, Ulama, Reaya

The askeri class in the Ottoman Empire was the

Military and bureaucratic class

• ruling elite +Sultan

• Sultan --> the dynamic successors of Osman, responsible only to God.

• Sultan granted his duty to ministers, the most important figure was the vizier. Every Sultan in the dynasty had one.

The law of fratricide:

• The Sultan would die and give throne to his son, who would be contested for his throne by his brothers. He had to kill his brothers when he succeeded the throne.

• The empire justified this by saying "The death of a prince is better than the death of a province.

Devshirme

Slave Elite

• Young men (Christians) would line up and be singled out for cleverness or strength, then be taken to Anatolia and converted to Islam. Then, they were set free. The strong ones were trained as Janisseries and the clever ones were trained as bureaucrats. They weren't allowed to marry.

Why did the Ottoman Empire Take Janissaries?

They did this mainly to gain from the Sultan royal state servants

Siphahis

• Both military and managerial functions

• Join the Sultan on campaign, fight for the Sultan alongside Janissaries

• Ottoman Sultan moved these Siphahis around

Ulama

They are religious guides, they offer faqwas, they manned Shariah courts, they provide Sultans with religious legitimacy. Ulama are salary

Reaya

masses of ordinary subjects in Ottoman society;

Anyone who is not a part of the ruling elite. Reaya produced the wealth that the Askeri needed in order to protect the Reaya so they could produce that wealth

+ Peasants
+ Merchants

Circle of Equity

• Reaya produced the wealth that the Askeri needed in order to protet the Reaya so they could produce that wealth.

• Consisted of peasants, merchants, 99% of the population

Reasons for Ottoman decline

Capitulations

-- Treaties that allowed Europeans to get away with whatever,

During the same time as the capitulations and threat from Europeans, the Ottomans suffered...

• military defeat.

• Austria and Russia defeated the Ottomans regularly on the battlefield.

• Ottomans were defeated by the Russians years later after they were defeated by Austria (resulting in the treaty of Karlowitz). This resulted in

Treaty of Karlowitz

• (1699) Ended the Siege of Vienna and gave Austria the lands of Hungry from the Ottoman empire.

• (forces the Ottomans to give Hungary to the Austrians)

Siege of Vienna

• Siege of Vienna, (Sep-Oct 1529). In 1529 the Ottoman Empire made a determined effort to capture Vienna, the capital of the Hapsburg Austrian Empire. The failure to take Vienna marked the end of Turkish expansion into Europe and was followed by the diversion of Ottoman effort toward Asia and the Mediterranean.

• The Siege of Vienna in 1529 was the first attempt by the Ottoman Empire, led by Suleiman the Magnificent, to capture the city of Vienna, Austria.

Kucuk Kaynarca

• Treaty that ended the Russo-turkish war

• (Ottomans were forced to give over big chunks of land (Black Sea) to the Russians)

Decline of Janissaries

Janissaries were the troops of the Sultan and were supposed to be loyal to him. In the 1690s, the Janissaries were allowed to marry and have family and do business on the side, and they were not allowed to do this before. So now, they were not as loyal. The Janissaries became a liability rather than an asset.

Valley Lords in Mesopotamia

(The siphahis were removed and replaced)

Osmanlis

The followers of Osman Gazi. Their name eventually translated into Ottoman

Avenues of Expansion

• Balkans: Serbia ("field of blackbirds" 1389); Constantinople (1453)

• Safavid Persia: Chaldiran (1514)

• Mamluk Syria and Egypt

Battle of Chaldiran

took place on 23 August 1514 and ended with a decisive victory for the Ottoman Empire over the Safavid Empire

Field of Blackbirds

Battle of Kosovo, Kosovo also spelled Kossovo, (June 28 [June 15, Old Style], 1389), battle fought at Kosovo Polje ("Field of the Blackbirds"; now in Kosovo) between the armies of the Serbian prince Lazar and the Turkish forces of the Ottoman sultan Murad I (reigned 1360-89) that left both leaders killed and ended in a Turkish victory, the collapse of Serbia, and the complete encirclement of the crumbling Byzantine Empire by Turkish armies.

Under Sultan Murad's rule the Turks had been expanding their rule from Anatolia into the Balkans, where the Serb Empire was potentially their strongest opponent. At the Battle of Maritsa in 1371 the Serbs suffered a severe defeat that fragmented their empire into rival princedoms.

Millet system

an autonomous self-governing religious community, each organized under its own laws and headed by a religious leader, who was responsible to the central government for the fulfillment of millet responsibilities and duties, particularly those of paying taxes and maintaining internal security

• ottoman empire

Externally-generated reasons for Ottoman decline

1. Economic Decline (Capitulations)
2. Military Decline
a. Karlowitz (1699)
b. Kuchuck Kaynarya (1774)

Economic Decline (Capitulations)

External factors, most prominently the penetration of European merchant capital into the empire, caused a wrenching dislocation of the Ottoman economy. Beginning in the late sixteenth century, Ottoman raw materials, normally channeled into internal consumption and industry, were increasingly exchanged for European manufactured products. This trade benefited Ottoman merchants but led to a decline in state revenues and a shortage of raw materials for domestic consumption. As the costs of scarce materials rose, the empire suffered from inflation, and the state was unable to procure sufficient revenues to meet its expenses. The revenue shortfall dangerously undermined the institutions that supported the Ottoman system, especially the armed forces. A series of commercial treaties, known as the CAPITULATIONS, which the Ottoman sultans signed with the Christian states of Europe, facilitated the penetration of European manufactured goods into the empire and the eventual domination of Ottoman commerce by Europeans and their protégés. The first Capitulation agreement, negotiated with France in 1536, allowed French merchants to trade freely in Ottoman ports, to be exempt from Ottoman taxes, and to import and export goods at low tariff rates. In addition, the treaty granted extraterritorial privileges to French merchants by permitting them to come under the legal jurisdiction of the French consul in Istanbul, thus making them subject to French rather than Ottoman

Internally-Generated Reasons for Decline

Decline of Janissaries
2.Rise of Valley Lords

Rise of Valley lords

The decline of central authority also brought opportunities for local leaders to acquire a greater measure of regional power. Throughout Anatolia and the European and Arab provinces of the empire, local valley lords (DEREBEYS and a'yan) gained increasing degrees of autonomy from Istanbul, setting up what were essentially small principalities. These autonomous rulers did not seek to overthrow the Ottoman state, only to distance themselves from its authority, to collect and control the revenues generated in their territory, and to pass their autonomy on to their heirs. They only provided their allotment of armed men to fight the sultan's wars when they saw some personal advantage in doing so.

Ottoman reform took place in the ____ century

19th

Mahmud II

• killed janissaries, started fresh with peasants and conscription (forced them to join), military modernization and centralized bureaurocracy

• (1785-1839) Ottoman sultan; built a private, professional army; fomented revolution of Janissaries and crushed them with the private army; destroyed power of Janissaries and their religious allies; initiated reform of the Ottoman Empire on Western precedents

Mahmud II main reforms

• Military modernization

• Military and medical schools

• A more efficient and centralized bureaucracy

What was stage one of the ottoman reform?

Mahmud II

What was stage two of the Ottoman Reform?

Tanzimat (re-organization)

Abdul Mejid 1839

Led the second phase of the reformation

-Added the Rose Chamber Transcript of 1839
-Declared legal equality of all Ottoman subjects, regardless of religion or ethnicity
-Replaced the feudal system with individual ownership
-New law code based on European model

Rashid Pasha, Ali Pasha, Fuad Pasha

• high ranking European educated ministers; encouraged civil education
  

• They were the driving force of the tanzimat, they bore the name pasha which was a high ranking name. They all went and studied abroad in Vienna, and then came back to istanbul to convince the Sultan to change things.
  

• Sultan changed to Civilian schools, western law codes

Why did the Sultan (Abdul Mejid) change to western law in the second phase (tanzimat)?

The 19th century was an era that was bursting with change and the reformers saw that that the Shariah had nothing to say about these changes. They chose to chuck large sections of the Shariah and replaced it with western law codes that did have something to say about these changes.

Islamic Modernism

a nineteenth century reaction to the challenges posed by technologically advanced European societies; modernists wanted to reshape Islam along European social and political lines.

Two Royal Edicts of Intent

1. Hatt-i Sharif of Gulhane (1839)
2. Hatt-i Humayun (1856)

Hatt-i Sharif of Gulhane (1839)

standardized military

• the sultan issued a decree that attempted to reorganize the administration and military of the empire along European lines.

Hatt-i Humayun (1856)

• Aimed to establish equality between Ottoman subjects regardless of faith or ethnicity
  

• Removed Corruption, Created Equality
  

• A far reaching reform decree issued by Sultan Abdul-Mejid I in 1856. The decree created a national citizenship by taking away the political authority of the empire's religious leaders. It tried to remove cultural divisions by making people from all cultures and religions eligible to serve in the government.

What did the two royal edicts do?

removed corruption, standardized military, created equality

Ottomanism

• An ideology developed by the Ottoman govt in order to strengthen their subjects' loyalty and solidarity. Focused on the idea the all subjects are equal (despite religious/ethinic/linguistic differences) and deserved equal rights (reinforced by Imperial decree of 1856).

• equality, we are all one, he wanted people to become nationalistic instead of focusing on their religion, greek Christians were starting to get help from Europe for the rebellions, so the ottomans wanted to stop that

• No longer did Christians and Jews have to pay poll tax in order to practice their own religion.

• Ottomanism was an attempt to purchase the loyalty of Balksns subjects. However, it was a little too late, and by the 1800s, the entire peninsula was free of Ottoman Rule.

Who led the third phase of Ottoman Reform?

Sultan Abdul Aziz (1861-1876)

Abdul Aziz

This man, ruling from 1861 to 1876, was the most liberal Sultan ever to rule the Ottoman Empire. He traveled throughout Europe, including the world's fair in Paris in 1867, but his attempts to industrialize his empire were doomed to fail his people had no experience with such labour and they resented the change he represented. A poor practical ruler, this man was forced to repudiate half of the Ottoman's debts in 1874, making him very unpopular in Europe. He would be forced to abdicate by Minister Midhat Pasha two years later.

What was the third phase of the reformation?

Constitutionalism

What were the three phases of the Ottoman Reformation?

1. Military

2. Tanzimat

3. Consituitonalism

After the rule of Abdul Aziz, what did the young Ottomans do?

young Ottomans were interested in constitution because old ruler was not a good ruler so they wanted to share the power of the sultan. They proposed a constitution to the next Sultan, Abdul Hamid

Abdul Hamid

• At first Abdul Hamid agreed to the constitution proposed by the young Ottomans. However, later he felt the constitution was no longer useful, and got rid of it and hunted down the young Ottomans

• Ottoman sultan who attempted to return to despotic absolutism during reign from 1878 to 1908; nullified constitution and restricted civil liberties; deposed in coup in 1908

Why was there no longer a need for Ottomanism in the 1900s?

Because the Ottomans were speaking arabic, so there's no longer a need to purchase the loyalty of Christians

Pan-Islam

Abdul Hamid felt that the sultan should rule all islamic people and revived the word Caliph. It was a way for him to gain legitimacy as the Sultan Caliph.

What was the Hijaz Railway?

• build by Hamid 2, The Hejaz railway was a narrobuild by Hamid 2, The Hejaz railway was a narrow-gauge railway that ran from Damascus to Medina, through the Hejaz region of modern day Saudi Arabia

• Its main line was constructed in 1900-08, ostensibly to facilitate pilgrimages to the Muslims' holy places in Arabia but in fact also to strengthen Ottoman control over the most distant provinces of the empire. The main line, built by a multiracial labour force mainly under the supervision of a German engineer

• The Hejaz railway that ran from Damascus to Medina, through the Hejaz region of Saudi Arabia, was one of the principal railroads of the Ottoman Turkish Empire and a vital route across the desert. The railway was built in 1900 at the behest of the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II and was supposed to extend all the way to Mecca in order to facilitate pilgrimage to the Holy city. But its primary motive was to strengthen the empire's control over the most distant provinces of the empire.

What does Sultan Abdul Hamid II do with the constitution proposed by the young Ottomans?

Abrogates the constitution (1878)

What was the german influence on phase 3 of the Ottoman Empire?

One of the significant results of the transportation boom was a strengthening of ties between Germany and the Ottomans. In 1882, the German general Colmar von der Goltz was employed as head of a mission to reorganize the armed forces, continuing a long-standing tradition of Prussian involvement in Ottoman military modernization. During the Hamidian era, German investment capital played a leading role in the construction of railways, most notably in the development of the Berlin-to-Baghdad line across Anatolia, a project that caused Britain such unease that it became as much a diplomatic issue as an engineering challenge. The GermanOttoman connection was made closer by Kaiser Wilhelm II's two state visits, in 1889 and 1898, and by his much-publicized declaration during the latter occasion that Germany was the friend of the world's 300 million Muslims.

What was the centralization on phase three of the ottoman empire?

What was the spy network on phase 3 of the Ottoman Empire?

When Sultan Abdülhamid ascended to the Ottoman throne he felt the need to form an intelligence network that surrounded the entire country starting from the court.

The Ottomans were ethnic ________

turks

When did the Mongols rise to power?

they arose to power following the chaos caused by the Mongol invasion (13th c.). Ottoman military successes in the Balkans opened the way to supremacy in Anatolia.

What were the phases in which the ottomans became a major world power?

The conquest of Constantinople (1453), which marked the end of the Byzantine Empire, and the conquest of Syria and Egypt (1516

At the height of their power, the Ottomans were as much a European as a Middle Eastern power. How was this so?

Extensive trade with Europe made the Ottomans a European power. Their location and land holdings were also strategic, because almost any European traveling to Southeast Asia had to travel around or through the Ottoman Empire.

Which empire was the first to organize marching bands? Which they used in the military?

Ottoman Empire

What did the Ottomans call their military music?

Mehter

What were Characteristic Ottoman Instituitons?

• Ottomans institutions included the caste of ruling elite

• the maintenance of the elite by the purchase and importation of "slaves" from the Balkans

• a centralized administration under the vizirate

• a provincial administration based on various forms of land tenure and tax collection

• the legal autonomy of Christian and Jewish legal communities.

Why do you suppose the sultans went to the trouble of "recruiting" their bureaucrats and janissaries from abroad?

• power -- they wanted to have the most powerful people of another empire all to themselves so that they could have that power
  

• The Ottomans recruited nobles from abroad to increase their sphere of influence.
  

• They did this mainly to gain from the Sultan royal state servants --> everything the Janissaries had, they owed to the Sultan. All the efforts and all their loyalty was channeled to the Sultan, so they were loyal to him

The external pressures were matched by that prevented the Ottomans from effectively meeting the challenge from Europe were...

In the eighteenth century, European merchants began to dominate the commerce and economy of the Empire. At the same time, Austrian and Russian armies began regularly to defeat the Ottoman armies in the field.

These external pressures were matched by _________ weaknesses that prevented the Ottomans from effectively meeting the challenge from Europe.

Internal

The internally generated weaknesses that prevented the Ottomans from effectively meeting the challenge from Europe were...

The Janissaries, once the dependable military arm of Ottoman expansion, became a threat to the state. Local leaders called derebeys ("Valley Lords") excised themselves from the central authority of the Ottoman State.

When did the Sultans attempt to reverse Ottoman decline through reforms in the imperial institutions?

The 18th century

Ottoman Reform Summary

Mahmud II (1808-1839) began the reformist project by modernizing the Ottoman army and imperial administration. His successor, Abdul Mejid (1839-1861), promulgated reform decrees, one of which granted equality to all of the Empire's subjects, including Christians and Jews. The primary intent of these decrees was to encourage the Christian peoples of the Balkans to remain loyal to the Empire at a time of increasing nationalism. In 1876 a constitution was drawn up for the empire, although it did not survive the autocratic reaction of Sultan Abdul Hamid II (1876-1909).

Can you think of a country in East Asia that modernized at about the same time as the Ottomans, in order to fend off western predatory nations?

Japan began to modernize in the early nineteenth century and were largely successful in fending off western predatory nations.

Rise of the Safavids

emerged in 1501 as a Sufi brotherhood under the command of Isma'il, who took the old Persian title "Shah" (literally, "king"). Isma'il transformed Perisa from a Sunni into a predominately Shi'a country. In 1598 Shah Abbas (one of Isma'il's successors) designated Isfahan as the imperial capital.

What did Safavid Power Rest on?

Safavid power rested on the military prowess of the Turkish Qizilbash tribesmen. However, sometimes they got out of hand. So the shahs created an Ottoman

Give a timeline of the Ottoman Sultanate?

1. 1301: Osman's defeat of Byzantine army at Nicea signals rise of Ottomans in Anatolia.

2. 1326: Ottomans establish Bursa as their capital

3. 1389: Ottoman victory over Serbia at Kosovo signals Ottoman superiority in Balkans

4. 1453: Mehmet II captures Constantinople, which becomes new Ottoman capital

5. 1516-1517: Ottomans incorporate Syria and Egypt into their Empire. Introduction of Ottoman land tenure system to Arab Middle East

Give a timeline of the Safavids?

1. Isma'il proclaims 12er Shi'ism official faith of Safavid realm

2. 1514: Shah Isma'il defeated by Sunni Ottomans at Chaldiran

3. 1598: Shah Abbas designates Isfahan the Safavid capital

4. 1722: Afghan tribesmen destroy Safavid dynasty

The history of modern Egypt begins with...

Napoleon's invasion

Why did Napoleon invade Egypt?

1). He wanted to cut off British routes from India

2). He wanted to establish in Egypt a french colony

One important sidebar of the invasion is that Napoleon brought with him a good number of scientists of every kind. Why do you suppose Napoleon went to this trouble?

1). He was a product of the Enlightenment and simply curious about an ancient land mentioned in the Bible.

2). If he understands ancient Egypt, then he's better at controlling them

The starting point for the reform of the Ottoman Empire was?

military modernization

Egypt was controlled by the _____ , and they were taken by the Ottoman Empire in 1917?

Mamluks

When does Napoleon Bonaparte invade Egypt?

1798

Battle of the Pyramids

• Napoleon defeated the Mamluks in Egypt by using modern weapons; Mamluks fought with swords; the French took control of Egypt
  

• Mamluks made a hasty retreat, door is open to Cairo.
  

• The Mamluks made an uprising against the French that was quieted down.

What forced the French out of Egypt?

• The combined British-Ottoman expedition forced French evacuation from Egypt in 1801.
  

• Both the British and Ottoman Empires Teamed up to force the French out of Egypt -- British did this to protect its possession over India. Ottoman did this to reclaim their Egyptian Province.

Description de l 'Égypt

enormous volumes of French descriptions of Egypt, known for its illustrations

Chompollion

The french learned to read Heiroglyphs from the Rosetta stone. a French man. Chompollion, deciphered the Heiroglyphs and the other Egyptian languahe on there through the greek that was written on there.

Muhammad Ali (r. 1805-1848)

• In the wake of Napoleon's withdrawal from Egypt, the Sultan sent a Muslim-Albanian commander named Muhammad Ali to re-establish authority in the land. Muhammad Ali did reestablish authority, but not the sultan's. Rather he took control of the province for him and his descendants.
  

• Leader of Egyptian modernization in the early nineteenth century. His descendants ruled Egypt until overthrown in 1952.
  

• Ali recognized the Sultan's Authority, but keeps Egypt for himself

Muhammad Ali's MiIitary Modernization

Like Mahmud II, Muhammad Ali modernizes the military -- he builds European style army; looks to peasantry of the country as a source --> builds army schools, hospitals, etc.

Muhammad Ali Industrialization of Egypt

• Revenues enhanced by Cotton monoculture, Muhammad Ali industrializes Egypt (textile factories), pays for this industrialization by forcing peasants to to make a lot of their land Cotton Plantations

• Noticed the demand for cotton and capitalized on that, using the profits to further develop their military; forces all peasants to grow cotton; purchases that cotton and sells it to the international market for a profit; goal to establish a hereditary dynasty in Egypt; period of Ottoman decentralization; takes control of full province (Egypt); attempts to industrialize; tries to expand beyond Egypt and incorporate other areas into his Egyptian empire, essentially building an empire within an empire; expands into Arabia and Sudan; Britain forces Muhammad's Egypt to open up to free trade because the Ottoman empire was preventing Russian expansion but Muhammad Ali was weakening that empire which worried Britain

• Muhammad Ali and his successors built up an impressive economic infrastructure, which was funded by the sale of Egypt's cotton crop on the international market and by the procurement of loans from European creditors.

Khedive

• a prince in Egypt.

• Viceroy, one who rules a country or province as the representative of his sovereign or king and who is empowered to act in the sovereign's name.

Who was Khedive Ismail?

• Muhammad Ali's grandson, the most important of his dynamic successors

• Ismail continued modernizing Egypt and wanted to westernize too

• Ismail encouraged western education in Egypt, built universities, language schools, hospitals

• This effort to modernize, westernize was shown in Cairo
  - He hired Ali Mubarak (architect) to rebuild the city
  - He built the city of Cairo based on Paris
  - Cairo became a City of light and openness
  - Old City -- dark, close together, people wearing traditional Muslim clothing.
  - New City --light, open, modern clothing

What were Khedive Ismail's Accomplishments?

redesigned Cario. extended the irrigation canals, and built port facilities and railways. During his rule, the Suez Canal was opened (his father had started the project

When did the British occupy Egypt?

1882

why did Britain take over in Egypt? (ASK TEACHER)

Did Ismail bear any responsibility? (ASK TEACHER)

Who was Lord Cromer?

Britain's Consul General in Egypt

Egyptian nationalists were challenging the occupation. British interference in Egypt's affairs would last until...

1952