Gender from Constance's Notes

What are the trends for the period we may use to say there was liberation?

increased availability and types of contraception; push for homosexual rights; more acceptance of premarital sex; more womens lib

when was the period of most relaxation from the church on sex?

1930s-60s

what was there a decrease in across Europe in first decades of 20th C?

fertility

How may sex counselling centres were there in Berlin, and Weimar Germany as a whole? (1919-33)

36, 100s

How many condoms were produced in Weimar Germany?

80million+

Who was the market leader for condoms? (based in Berlin)

Julius Fromm (got first patent in 1916)

Noteworthy lesbian clubs in Weimar Germany? (there were at least how many described in a guidebook for tourists?)

Damenklub Violetta/the Café Olala; 14

What did Hitler name as the thre natural occupations for women? (not a direct quote!)

'Kinder, Kirche und Küche' (Children, Church and Kitchen)

how many female drs/civil servants sacked in 1933? (Germany)

1000s

What could women no longer be since 1936 in Germany?

judges or serve on juries

But what happened in the later 1930s... which meant by 1939, many more women in employment than 1933 (germany)

worker shortage- so some women allowed to work (

What did Hitler open in 1936

special maternity homes, breeding centres for production of pure Aryan children, where racially-approved Aryan mothers matched with SS men

which teens were encouraged to have sex with each other? (germany)

teens away from home in the Hitler Youth/Federation of German Girls/Reich Labour Service

What did Nazi's pay more attention to according to historian of sexuality, Herzog?

the female orgasm

when did providing an abortion to an Aryan woman became a capital offence?

1942

how many killing centres were established for disabled people?

6

Total number of disabled and mentally ill individuals killed?

210,000 (70,000 of these at the main 6 facilities 1940-1)

how many disabled children were killed by Germans?

5,000

when were homosexuality laws expanded to become more harsh and encompassing in Germany? (notably mainly male homosexuality)

1935 (previously only 'intercourse-like' actions criminalised 1935: mutual masturbation/parallel individual masturbation/'erotic' glances punishable)

why were Nazi's so worried about male homosexuality?

regime heralded masculinity (homosexuality didn't fit with this); failure to procreate; Nazi leadership anxious of being seen as queer due to their prevalence of same-sex institutions (e.g. Hitler youth, SS, Army)

how many men did Germany persecute for homosexuality by the end of the war?

100,000 (half convicted, 5-10,000 died in prison/camps)

What did Pope Pius XI support the Nazi state's stance on?

porn- 'The Vatican welcomes the struggle of National Germany against obscene material'

What religion were the majority of Germans speaking against eugenics? (albeit ineffectively)

catholic

what became a source of entertainment for bored concentration camp guards

sexual torture of prisoners

Example of a homosexual prisoner being sexually tortured? (TW)

at Flossenbürg, a man accused of homosexuality first had his testicles pushed alternately into scalding/cold water and was then raped with a broomstick

How many concentration camps did Himmler set up brothels in?

10

What was different about Vichy France/Italy/Spain's views on sex compared to Nazis

they tried to re-enforce Catholic church (Nazi's were anti-Catholic church and pro-sex)

until \___, housework legally defined as wife/mother's job

1977

how many women had tried the pill by 1964?

2,000

How much did West Germany spend on imported and domestically produced pornography?

50million Deutschmarks (import); 125 million domestically

What was contraception and abortion law under Third Republic France (1870-1940, democratic) in 1920?

criminalized! (post war worries of depopulation)

Where was there a growing community of lesbians in the interwar period?

Paris

What happened to abortion law in Vichy France in 1942

became harsher- became a crime against the state and could be met with death penalty

What had been legal in France since French Rev

consensual homosexual acts

when was the French movement for family planning founded?

1956

how many centres promoting contraception were in France by 1966 (set up by the French movement for family planning)

200

% of french women who tried the pill in 1970 comp with 1975

6% up to 25%

when was the Fourth Republic

1946-58 (then you get fifth republic)

when was abortion legalised in france

1975

when was contraception decriminalised in France

1967

April 1971: 100s of women signed a public declaration known as the '\______________ published in the magazine \_______, confessing to having had an illegal abortion and demanding its legalisation

Manifesto of the 343; Nouvel Observateur

what became the single biggest mobilizing issue for the Movement for the Liberation of Women?

abortion

Oct-Nov 1972: the \______ played an important role in shift public consciousness toward sympathy to idea of decriminalisation

'Bobigny trial' (French-Tunisian lawyer and main orginiser of Choisoir (To Choose) Gisèle Halimi, took on the defence of the mother of a young girl raped by a schoolmate whose abortion had been denounced to the authorities by the rapist)

What was Kollontai's suggested framework which included housework and children taken care of communally?

'large family-society'

When did Bolsheviks legalise abortion and decriminalise homosexuality?

1920

What did Lenin say he wanted to Clara Zetkin

complete equality of rights between men and women

how many Russian women pushed by Stalin to enter the working market for first time in 1930s?

10 million

Who was heralded as a SU hero example of good behaviour for loyalty to state above family in 1932, for example in a poem circulated across pop? (a peasant boy who was murdered by his relatives for denouncing his father as a kulak supporter)

Pavlik Morosov

When was abortion recriminalized in SU?

1936

When were abortions quietly relegalised in SU as part of an effort to reduce maternal mortality due to widespread illegal abortions?

1955

When were abortion laws relaxed in Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia respectively?

1956; 1957; 1959

What example does Fitzpatrick use to show women looking to state for protection/aid?

when men abandoned their wives/families women looked to Soviet officials to locate them

When was (male) homosexuality recriminalized in SU?

1933

What was homosexuality associated with in the SU?

Fascism

Evidence from who in Pravda on 23rd May 1934: There is already a sarcastic saying: Destroy homosexuality and fascism will disappear."

Maxim Gorky

What did Mussolini want to restore in Italian men? (part of tackling anxiety related to greater women's freedom)

Masculinity

What was hyped up in Italy as something that gave the change for masculinity?

War

What was Mussolini's target for population size by 1950 set in his 1927 Ascension Day speech?

60 million

Which Italian journalist said: 'man must decide. If he wants the woman to be fertile, in the Biblical sense and according to the commands of the Race and the Nation, he alone must assume, by himself, all the responsibilities of their common sustenance'

Umberto Notari

What did Italian laws passed in 1934 allow for mothers?

Compulsory maternity leave; job security from 6months pregnant to 6 weeks after birth; 2 guaranteed feeding periods a day until child was 1

Which historian argues with regard to German women under Nazis, regardless of ultimate aim, some effects of individual policies may have proved beneficial for at least some individual women?

Ute Frevert

What was there for unmarried men aged 25-65 in Italy under Mussolini? (lump sum and % of income)

A tax!

When did Italy introduce marriage loans (available to couples under what age?, and repayment was postponed if wife pregnant within 6months/cancelled after 4th child)?

1937; 26

When was the sale of contraceptives criminalised in Italy? (later backed up by 1931 Penal Code)

1926

What did a report on abortions in Italy show in 1936?

of 50 women who had had abortions, only 10 didn't do permanent damage to reproductive organs

Why wasn't homosexuality formally criminalised in Italy? (it was still policed though)

fears of presenting the idea homosexuality was on the rise if they did

When was pill made available in Italy, but what was its only allowed use?

1964; treating menstural disorders

What % of Italian women were using oral contraceptives in 1969 according to an Italian Ministry of Health estimate

10%

How were contraceptives marketed in response to fears that the pill would encourage women to have extra marital affairs?

Idea women would be less scared to have sex with husbands (due to pregnancy risk), so husband and wife would be sexually satisfied enough in marriage not to seek affairs

When was the promotion of contraceptive by doctors made legal in Italy?

1971

When did Italy decriminalise abortion? (self-denunciation campaigns played an important role in this)

1978

How did Franco describe women?

Angel of the home

When was sale of contraceptives made illegal in Spain? Same year as abortions made crime against the state

1941

Spain's birthrate decline from 1900 -\> 1930? (per thousand)

33.8; 28.2

Why weren't there eugenics in Franco Spain?

Catholic church against it

When was Franco in power?

1936 (civil war)- 1975

When was homosexuality decriminalised in Spain

1979 (after Franco)

When war abortion legalised in Spain?

1985

When was adultery decriminalised?

1978

What was allowed, although rarely chosen, in Sweden under a 1934 law (supported by Lutheran church and the Social Democratic govt)?

Voluntary sterilisation of mental patients

How many people sterilised in Sweden 1934-75? (more than any other European state other than the Nazi's)

62,000

Number of men castrated in Denmark in the 40 years after the 1929 Castration/sterilisation law

1,012

% of people sterlised in Denmark 1929-34 who were deemed mentally handicapped?

90%

Who were sterilised almost twice as much as who in Denmark?

Women than men

When did Denmark start to decriminalise homosexuality? (but don't think too liberal! It was because drs were saying it was medical not legal)

1912 start, 1933 full effect

What was paid more attention to in democratic regimes just as much as authoritarian?

Male homosexuality

When did Switzerland finally decriminalised all homosexual acts between consenting adults in private? (yet at the same time made homosexual prostitution criminal)

1942

When did Sweden decriminalised homosexuality? (but age of consent higher)

1944

When did Denmark decriminalise porn and become the worlds largest exporter of porn for a few years?

Late 1960s

Where is abortion still not legal!

Ireland

What flourished in most major European cities in the interwar period?

Homosexual subcultures

What is a general rule about attitudes to sex in interwar period (has exceptions)

southern Europe more conservative/northern Europe more liberal

When was the World League for Sexual Reform was founded at a congress of sex rights activists and where?

1928; Copenhagen

3 men involved in the World League for Sexual Reform?

German physician Magnus Hirschfeld, English sex researcher Havelock Ellis, Swiss psychiatrist Auguste Forel

How many members did the 1928 World League for Sex reform have?0

190,000

What did the World league for Sexual Reform want?

Divorce rights, gender equality, safe birth control, equal rights for homosexuals

Who said: 'I dream of the day when every new born child is welcome, when men and women are equal, and when sexuality is an expression of intimacy, joy and tenderness'

Elise Ottesen-Jensen (1933 cofounded the Swedish Associated for Sexuality Education)

Which Pope was hyping up sex within marriage in 1931? (sexual intercourse within marriage had additional (from procreation) purposes of 'mutual aid, the cultivating of mutual love, and the quieting of concupiscence')

Pope Pius XI

How many people died in WW2?

50 million

How many deaths from WW2 in USSR?

26 million