Native American Studies Exam 2

Subarctic - Environment

* **Tundra:** grassland, shrubs, snow, permafrost
* **Boreal Forest:** pine, evergreen trees, lowlands (big lakes), rivers, marshes, swamps, wetlands
* **Deciduous Forest:** lakes, rivers, waterways all connecting everything
* Canadan Shield & MacKenzie Borderlands
* Cordillera (most in the Alaskan part)
* Alaska Plateau (highland area in Alaska)

Subarctic - Precontact

* Paleoindian: ? - 10,000 BP
* Archaic: 10,000 BP - Contact (17th Century)
* Algonquian (Eastern Canada) & Athapaskan (Western Canada)
* Woodland (Eastern US in Deciduous forests)
* Developed pottery but wasn't practical for their transportation
* Heron Bay Site
* Site of burial mounds that they would come back to
* Burial Mounds

Subarctic - Contact

* Norse (not much contact with Indians, mostly trade)
* After Columbus
* French Basque Fishermen 
* More contact with indigenous peoples
* French (fur trade), Russian (fur trade), and British
* Northwest Company - British pushed out the Russians on the eastern side to monopolize the fur trade
* Hudson Bay Company - British that pushed out the French on the Western side
* Metis
* Usually took the side of indigenous groups in political affairs


* Louis Riel
* NW Rebellion of 1885
* Gold (more settlers came in and pushed natives off their lands)
* WWII - war bases also further displaced the native peoples

Subarctic - Political Organization

* Bands (group of related families) - not permanent, could change allegiances depending on what was most practical for them
* Smaller bands in winter, bigger in summer
* Headman - chosen based on merit (not passed down)
* Experience and strength
* War
* Physical and Spiritual
* Surprise attacks
* Based on revenge and grudges

Subarctic - Social Organization

* Family
* More extended (usually a clan or band) - both father and mother sides


* Bilateral Kinship
* Clans - power was not passed down from father to son…
* Puberty
* 1st Menses
* Vision Quest
* Spirit helper to guide them
* Taken without food or water, puberty 
* Marriage
* Arranged by family (by parents first at puberty)
* Divorce is simple - one could just leave
* Division of Labor
* Strict
* Relied on hunting for food and materials
* Death
* Graves or tree scaffolds
* Platform in tree with most important possessions

Subarctic - Economics

* The well-being of the whole unit was the most important
* Rules
* Sharing
* Reciprocity
* Cooperation
* Cariou & Moose
* \*Often called in or captured by an individual hunter
* Nuhoniyeh
* Fish
* Salmon, trout, whitefish, and char
* Plants
* Berries, roots, onions, & mushrooms
* Sap: used for candy or sweetener, or used as a material for different technologies like glue

Subarctic - Material Culture and Technology

* Shelter varied by season
* Skin tent in summer (Tippi)
* Canoes
* The primary mode of transportation
* Clothing
* Tanned caribou or moose hide
* Women in charge of making the clothing in the whole process
* Copper
* Cold hammered - pounded hammer when not heated up
* Babiche
* Weaded strips of animal hide together to make fishnets, etc

Subarctic - Religion and Beliefs

* Universe contains power
* Good or evil
* Spirits
* Animals, plants, geographic features, & objects
* Spirit helper
* Respect for animals
* Though animals cared for humans by sacrificing themselves, they were much thanked and respected - would not kill mothers or baby animals, etc
* Shamans
* Sucking cure

Subarctic - Today

* 1951 Indian Act - dealings mostly with Canadian governance
* James Bay Project
* The large hydroelectric project that dammed many water sources and cause controversy with Indians as they thought they were using the land - caused division amongst people within different groups
* Cree Documentary
* Together We Stand Film
* Maintaining Cultural Identity
* Through language advancing programs for youth especially 
* Gwich’in Dancing

Nehiyawak (Western Woods Cree) - Environment & History

* Boreal forest, swamp, and rolling hills (lowlands, waterways)
* 17th Centuray
* French: Contact with french fur traders
* Claimed to trap animals and sell them to the French, and started to live near Frnehc settlements
* Chipewyan
* Competing with this group in the market for French fur traders, causing conflicts between the two, though the French eventually stopped this
* 1840 - Cree Language Written
* Allowed them to keep their own written records
* 19th Century
* Trade 
* Metis
* Became their own group that related with the Cree in their living and economic endeavors
* 20th Century
* Great Depression: Those depending on income from trading with French fur traders struggled during the Great Depression, which was hard to revert to their original culture as it had been majorly lost, in their land, and culture

Nehiyawak (Western Woods Cree) - Political Organization

* Band - several related families
* Regional Band - Summer
* Bilateral Kinship
* Headman
* Chosen based on experience, respect, and supernatural powers
* Major Duties
* Peace
* Movement
* Did not have much power beyond this, a new headman could be elected if needed (the structure was not set in stone)
* War
* Armor
* Bow and Arrow

Nehiyawak (Western Woods Cree) - Social Organization

* Nuclear & Extended Family
* Descent and inheritance not recognized
* Birth
* Infanticide
* Children wanted, but if the family could not support the baby, it would be sacrificed to serve the best interest of the group
* Childhood
* Vision Quest - Boys & Girls
* Puberty
* Female: 1st Menses - isolation (during menstruation they would isolate as it was thought they had powers)
* Male: 1st kill
* Marriage 
* Often arranged at birth
* Gift giving
* Death
* Personal items are given away
* Mourning for a year
* Did not wash face
* Could request death or commit suicide

Nehiyawak (Western Woods Cree) - Economics, Material Culture, and Technology

* Hunting - moose and caribou
* Until the French fur trade became popular
* Fishing - summer (trapping for fur trade eventually took over the economy)
* Plants
* Berries = #1
* Trapping - Shifting Economy
* Long term camps
* Conical houses
* Canoes and Toboggans
* Toboggans especially carried by women or in winter when waterways were frozen
* Clothing and Adornment
* Caribou skin or moose skin
* Tattoos practiced by both gendered

Nehiyawak (Western Woods Cree) - Cosmology, Religion, and Medicine

* Cree Creation Story
* Dog = Father of Cree people (and all animals)
* Religion - individual
* Manitous (spirit/power found in everything)
* 3 Categories of Spirits/Persons
* Spirit persons
* Humans
* Animals
* Medicine
* Shamans important for physical and spiritual fears
* Evil spirits

Nehiyawak (Western Woods Cree) - Today

* 1971 - Grand Council of Cree
* Created to unite the bands (alliance) of Cree to speak upon the various issues
* Lubicon Lake Cree - Oil Exploitation
* Settlement in 2018 - $133 million and 246K square kilometers of land
* Put towards the development of social programs
* Though there is controversy because the money comes from the oil that exploited their land in the first place
* Woodland Cree First Nation

Plateau - Geography and Environment

* Canyons, different forests, mountains, valleys (western Montana, over into eastern Washington, Idaho, and northern Oregon, and into Canada)
* Trade was extremely important in this environment
* Migrations - different groups from different migrations came in based on ice melt, etc

Plateau - Precontact

* Paleoindian: ? - 10,000 BP
* Oregon Archaeological Site (>15,000 BP - even earlier) 
* Archaic: 10,000 - Contact
* Late - 4,000 BP to 1720
* Groups consolidates and started building villages - seen in archeological sites (found pits, can see how large the villages are, with this other remains can be found)
* Intensification of salmon use

Plateau - Contact

* Lewis and Clark
* Got to Plateaus in 1805, spent the first winter in the plains, and kept moving west, maintaining contact with Nez Perce
* Hudson Bay Company
* Fur trappers and traders came flowing into the area after Lewis and Clark, especially as Westward expansion continued
* Oregon Trail& Missionaries (Whitman Massacre - Cayuse) 
* Settled in plateau areas taking advantage of their land and their resources (labor), though their ‘reason’ was to convert indigenous to Christianity
* Whittman Massacre
* This led to greater government control in areas
* Walla Walla Council Treaty of 1855
* Signed by some plateau groups
* Designated reservations and limitations that guarantee rights to fishing and hunting rights, 
* Gold Rush
* White settled on reservations from gold causing conflict
* The Modoc War
* Examples of problems withdrawing reservation boundaries
* US government promised reservation on their tribal lands, but they were placed on another land, so they settled on their tribal land and the US declared war against them
* Eventually defeated and they were sent to places as prisoners of war
* Raised awareness to the rest of the US about the real treatment of indigenous people through different controversies

Plateau - Political Organization

* 24 Groups - Within the plateau area
* 4 Language Groups - Salishan, Algonquian, Athapaskan, & Penutian
* Same larger migrations from subarctic groups and migrations down the western coast
* Village (a permanent village in winter, in summer they would go to different areas to take advantage of resources)
* Headman/Chiefs - different chiefs for different resources (salmon chief, camp chief, war chief, … heads of different functions)
* Council
* Support the headman and chief in their decisions
* Pacifism
* Beneficial to trade relations
* Women had a political voice
* Voice opinions to male representatives of the council, or as the wife of chief, some were representatives themselves

Plateau - Social Organization

* Bilateral Kinship
* Mother and Father side count
* Division of Labor
* Women - gather plant food and materials, domestic chores
* Men - hunt, trade, and if necessary warfare
* Puberty
* Vision Quest
* 1st Menses
* Menstrual Hut - isolated from the rest of the group
* \*\*Depended for males; was sometimes the first kill
* Marriage
* Alliances
* Arranged to form alliances to keep trading partners, marriages would be with different groups in the region or even outside the region
* Divorce
* Not easy and not practiced, because marriage is an alliance between groups so it was much more important
* Death
* Annual Mourning Ceremony

Plateau - Economics

* Hunting - large diversity of animals to hunt
* Pets
* Fishing
* Salmon - follow yearly migrations and spawn up the rivers along the NW coast, spawn in extreme numbers so they knew about this
* Tribal Fishing Tradition
* Plant Gathering - greater importance
* Camas - important spiritually

Plateau - Material Culture and Technology

* Housing
* Using different materials - wood frame, covered with animal skins or woven materials
* Winter - semisubterrain housing (pit houses)
* Canoes - dugout from one tree hollowed out
* Mortar and Pestles - used to process roots ( basket attached to a stone to grind things up)
* Bow and Arrow - The primary form of hunting and warfare

Plateau - Religion

* Personal
* Relationship with spirits and spirit helper, some group ceremonies
* Shamanism - Important
* 1st Ceremonies
* First-fruit: salmon, camas
* Celebrate the start of the harvest of different resources that helped sustain life
* Men are in charge of the salmon harvest, women are in charge of the camas harvest

Plateau - Today

* Reservations and Reserves
* Fishing Rights - fighting to win these back which was guaranteed through treaties though this was ignored by whites
* 1974 Boldt Decision
*  Ruled in favor of the rights of the Indigenous of hunting and fish off their lands
* Washat - 7 Drum Religion
* Lots of Christian influence, infusion of traditional beliefs and Christian beliefs (combines Christianity with vision quests and shamanism…)
* The Yakama War

Nimiipuu (Nez Perce) - History

* History
* 1730 - Horse
* From great plains groups through trade, impact on trade because they became breeders/traders of horses; also able to cross Montana mountains into great plains in summers
* 1805 - Lewis and Clark
* First contact with Europeans, crossing through Montana borders to encounter the Nimiipuu; missionaries came to try to Christianize them
* 1830s - 1860s - Treaties and Reservations (\~8 mil. Acres -> 757,00 acre - “Thief Treaty”)
* As more people colonize there
* Made treaties with various bands, initially different reservations for each band, but eventually clumped together
* The US decided later that this treaty was illegal, they had forced those to sign falsely (to represent the whole tribe) not under their own free will
* 1877 - Nez Perce War (Wallowa Band)
* Chief Looking Glass (Allalimya Takanin) and Chief Joseph (in-mut-too-yah-lat-lat)
* 1893 - Land Reduction
* Dawes Act (lost 542,000 acres) - initially had 8 million acres
* The 1900s - Tribal Government
* On the final reservation, the tribal government was formed
* Descendants are on this reservation

Nimiipuu (Nez Perce) - Political and Social Organization

* Bands
* Traditional organizations, congregated around permanent villages in winter, in summer they would range out into smaller camps
* Villages
* Headman (main leader; civic duty) - in charge of village admin
* Chiefs - in charge of different duties (salmon chief, buffalo chief)
* Generally peaceful and remained high trade relations
* General peaceful
* 3 classes
* Wealthy (usually chiefs or other leaders)
* Middle
* Slaves (usually from other regions, traded into slavery)
* Childhood
* Cradleboard: used for infants and small children to keep them safe, warm, and protected while parents were working (had family significance and was passed down)
* Placed onto a horse or tree.. etc


* Baths
* To help a child’s immune system
* Names
* Done when a child gained adulthood, child names might be different and go along with their development/character
* *Wyakin*
* *Concept of spirit helper; upon puberty, to acquire a spirit animal*
* *Somesh*
* *Individual power that all human beings have obtained through the guidance of spirit helper*
* Marriage
* Related to trade relations; often with someone outside the village or another tribe
* To solidify partnerships with other tribes
* Death
* Some belongings burned, but others were passed down based on a will, which can include the power of the spirit helper being passed down

Nimiipuu (Nez Perce) - Economics

* Hunting and Fishing (agriculture not part of the system)
* Salmon: Main resource
* Lots of rivers run into the pacific ocean (salmon run comes at different times of the year from the ocean); they would create dams to funnel fish, netting across the river, storage along the river during salmon spawning
* Plants
* Camas: most important; root with starchy tube (nutritious)
* Nez Perce Horse
* Major trade items after established (Appaloosa bred by these guys, known for being faster and more agile)
* Bred and trained horses for others to sell, became the main trade item

Nimiipuu (Nez Perce) - Material Culture and Technology

* Semi-subterranean houses and tipis
* More permanent, insulated house
* Tipies used for summertime
* Travel by foot and canoe (and by horse)
* Canoe along river routes
* Clothing
* Deerskin: most important animal resource
* Paint and decoration
* Used on body, clothing, and rock art as decoration
* Canoe Project 
* Trying to bring back more traditional ways of making things (i.e. digging out canoes)

Nimiipuu (Nez Perce) - Cosmology, Religion, and Recreation

* Coyote and the Monster (origin story)
* Plays the role of a trickster, careless, or reckless
* The monster had eaten all of the people, and the coyote cuts out the monster's heart from the inside as he was swallowed; as he takes out the pieces of the monster, they become different groups of people; the Nimiipuu (Nez Perce) were made from the monsters blood


* Kamiah
* Made from the monster's heart
* Ceremonies
* 2 major first-feasts
* Salmon and camas; not only to give thanks for harvest but to show appreciation and encourage giving in the future
* Guardian Spirit Dance
* Happened in winter when living off of storage-able food, they would reenact their spirit and this helped reinforce the power of their spirit
* Shaman - Tooat
* Men or women
* Mitigate evil and heal the sick
* Soothsayers
* Read the future through cracks in bones, or find things that were lost

Nimiipuu (Nez Perce) - Today

* 2010 Population - 6,700
* The population is currently increasing 
* Fish Hatcheries: to replenish native fish species and to continue their resource availability
* Lumber: continues in Native industries
* Casino: a useful way for tribes to make money to be put toward activities and education in their culture (often to give to the kids) - different social programs

Northwest Coast Cultures - Geography and Environment

* Southern Alaska Southern Oregon 
* Coastline & Islands (wet, dense forest) - lots of twists and turns; lots of miles of coastlines
* Climate = Wet & Mild 
* Thick forests 

Northwest Coast Cultures - Precontact

* Paleoindian: ? - 10,000 BP 
* Evidence of footprints of those walking along the coast
* Meay Channel I (footprints 13,000 BP) 
* Manis Mastodon Kill (13,800 BP) 
* Evidence for Humans killing these
* Ayers Pond (bison butchering 13,900 BP)
* All these points to people migrating down the coast
* Though there might be many archeological sites underwater as the ocean water level has risen since this time
* Early Holocene: 10,000 - 5,000 BP
* Modern forest 
* Salmon 
* Middle Holocene: 5,000 - 3,500 BP
* Development of more intricately structured societies 
* Northwest Coast Pattern: 3,500 - 200 BP
* Warfare and Ranked Societies 
* Specialization in woodworking 
* Ozette Site (500 BP slide)

Northwest Coast Cultures - Contact

* Russians vs. Tlingit 
* Russians Came down the coast of Canada 
* Battles of 1802 and 1804
* Lingit won first but Russians established a trading post
* Fur Trade (French and British coming from the East)
* Chinuk Wawa - trade language; words from each language in which there were French, English, and native languages combined so everyone could understand each other when trading
* Goes to show that there was much trade going on
* 1850 - 1890 
* Treaty of Point Elliott 
* To reduce indigenous lands; establish reservations for certain groups for those able to sign treaties; British did not sign treaties but really only had trade relations
* Gunboat Diplomacy
* Once the British decided they wanted to take over their lands, they would destroy towns that were in cooperation with their control by using gunboats along the coast
* Commercial fishing 
* Economic pursuit in area, fish could be exported as canning became a thing (became super overfished, and this led to the depression in the 20s)
* 1920s - Depression

Northwest Coast Cultures - Overview

* Large, sedentary populations (permanent towns that were the main focus)
* Distinctive architecture: different types of housing; large houses made of wood and decorated
* Woodworking
* Main forms of making tools, houses, and art because this was their major resource (especially red cedar)
* At contact pop. \~200,000
* 45 distinct languages
* 13 language families
* More language diversity within this area; this is because along the coast there were many migrations occurring because it was easy to migrate in the area when there was much ice as compared to other areas

Northwest Coast Cultures - Political Organization

* Primary unit = winter town
* Chiefdoms: leader of the town and leader of the most important clan in the town, within the clan there are leaders within the lineages, and within the house, there was a leader as well
* Chiefdom
* Clan Cheif
* Chiefs of different events
* Town Chief
* Clan chief 
* Other Leaders for specific purposes
* Warfare
* Revenge & Slaves: war based on this and generally limited to this region or even down to California because it mostly took place along the coast at sea (using canoes to raid other villages)
* Raids: occurred from canoes in the oceans
* Armors: the goal was to not fight until surprising other group so this was often not used much

Northwest Coast Cultures - Social Organization

* 3 Classes
* Nobliliy (highest ranked clans or chiefs)
* Commoner
* Slave (used for resource gathering)
* Kinship
* North - Matrilineal - passed down through mother's side
* Central - Bilateral
* South - Patrilineal - passed down through father's side
* Clans: group of families = lineage; related lineages = clan
* Clans important within villages


* Crests
* Totems: spiritual beings that created the clan, each clan had different spiritual being (often animals); it represents how they originated
* Ranks
* Within family, lineage, clan, village
* Set, strict ranking system; each village has its own ranking system within each village, clan, lineage, family, and each individual
* Every person has an established place within the social structure
* Marriage
* Done to maintain rank or raise the rank
* Arranged, political, and social prestige, rights, and property, rank

Northwest Coast Cultures - Potlatch

* Ceremonial activity; large celebration in which the host gives away gifts to all people that attend (food, songs, entertainment, dance) the more you give away, the more rank to attain)
* Rank
* Life Events
* Births, deaths, marriages; can be for rivalry (challenging your ranking as compared to other clans) and can move up or down on rank based on your potlatch
* Food, entertainment, and gift giving
* Coppers
* Thin sheets
* Can be used to keep clans history; can be destroyed or given away to show that you have enough wealth
* Decorated
* Names & Histories
* European impact
* Trade Goods
* Changing of potlatch
* New materials are given away from new trade goods
* Disease
* Gaps in ranking systems from deaths from the disease
* As people died, there weren’t enough to fill rankings, so some tried to buy into the ranking system by buying European trading goods
* Ban in Canada (1884-1951)
* Spiritual connections and reinforcement of spiritual purposes were lost when banned in Canada and were then done in secret to try to keep it within their cultures
* Functioned in helping to pass on wealth

Northwest Coast Cultures - Economics

* Complex
* Supported large, sedentary populations
* No agriculture
* The marine resources were important
* Land Resources
* Plants - Roots, tubers, berries
* Tobacco
* Animals
* Marine Resources  (main resource)
* Sea mammals
* Molluscs
* Fish - salmon: most important by far
* Harvest salmon provided enough food to help them get through the entire year during salmon runs
* Dams were built along rivers and these funneled fish to a point where they could be caught
* Economic knowledge and process through harvesting salmon
* Gathered enough resources during spring, summer, and fall to be able to last through the winter

Northwest Coast Cultures - Material Culture and Technology

* Woodworking
* Red and yellow cedar: most important; red for houses and boxes; yellow used for weaving into hats, baskets, etc
* Master craftsmen: skilled in these techniques with wood
* Bentwood Box
* Houses
* Large- 60ft long; accommodated multiple families
* Canoes (the primary form of transportation) - could hold 2 - 50 people depending on purpose/size
* Variety of sizes
* Red cedar dugouts; dugout and treated with steam to be thin to a point where it didn’t look dug out
* Decorated 
* Clothing
* Everday vs Ceremonial
* Everyday: practical
* Ceremonial: decorated in totems and emblems of the clans (stylized patterns); also had masks and other parts important for the ceremony
* Blanket (decorated to represent clan symbols)
* Chilkat Dance

Northwest Coast Cultures - Totem Pole and Religion

* Totem poles
* Emblems of rank
* May depict family history, rank, exploits, origin story, memorials…
* \*\*Represented rank relationships (the figure representing the highest rank would be at the top and vice versa) can show a family history, could be a memorial, placed in front of the house, used for shaming
* Types
* Welcome
* Mortuary
* Shaming
* Religion
* Many supernatural beings
* Power is concentrated here, each clan has a supernatural being that founded it, but there is also another spiritual being
* Creators of specific clans
* Ceremonies

Northwest Coast Cultures - Today

* Reservations and Reserves
* For those who were left out originally
* Lifting of Potlatch Ban - 1951
* Potlatch Today
* Nisga’a Treaty (2000)
* First treaty since the 1800s, giving them more sovereignty; recognizing those who were not recognized in the first place
* Fishing and Hunting Rights
* Treaties guaranteed groups to hunt in traditional ways along their reservations
* Makah Hunt and Recent News
* The debate came about with Makah as they hunted whales; the whale population decreased and they weren’t allowed to hunt them, when the population increased, there was a trying for them to hunt those whales again and white animal activists said they should not hunt this species as it could become endangered again

Kwakwaka’wakw (Kwakiutl) - Environment

Easter Vancouver Island and the surrounding mainland

Kwakwaka’wakw (Kwakiutl) - Overview

* Language: Kwak’wala
* European contact: 1786 (British trading ship) - coming down the Arctic coast
* The main contact through the period was British


* Fort Rupert (1849)
* Establishment of the British trading post, many of these people moved to be near this trading post to become more involved in the fur trade
* Reserves for some groups (1880)
* Some individual villages received these, but not all of the theme
* Portioned off depending on who had the best relationship with the British
* Became a single cultural and political entity around 1900
* Corresponded with economic activity of fishing


* Commercial fishing (1900-1920)

Kwakwaka’wakw (Kwakiutl) - Cosmology, Politics, and Social Organization

* Transformer (everything existed in chaos and this transformer arranged these into different things) - put things in the proper places
* All beings are the same on the inside
* 30 independent political entities
* Winter towns -> confederations
* Secular chief - title and privileges passed from father to son
* War: revenge or prestige
* Soldiers were often undesirable and did not get along well with the rest of the population and were single and would just be the ones to go and do raids
* Professional soldiers
* Lineage -> clan (groups of families within a clan)
* House, crest, rank, property, resource localities, rights, potlatch
* Sexual division of labor - not rigid; some would not follow this to fulfill the roles of the society

Kwakwaka’wakw (Kwakiutl) - Life Cycle and Economics

* Hunting, fishing, and gathering
* Salmon, Sea Mammals, Shellfish, Terrestrial animals
* 3 names: birthplace, 10mo., adult
* When born receive the name of the birthplace, 10 mo. seen as a child to parents and receive names from parents, in adulthood they would receive an actual name
* Puberty
* Men: dancing society initiation
* Women: menses; then are eligible for marriage
* Marriage
* Arranged, usually same rank (males receive women’s father's rights and property, so would have to give gifts)
* Bride-price and ceremony
* Rank, rights, and privileges
* Death: ceremony like potlatch, fear of ghosts (buried a certain way and their name would not be mentioned)

Kwakwaka’wakw (Kwakiutl) - Material Culture and Technology

* Multi-family plank houses
* Up to 100 feet long, decorated
* Canoes
* Clothing
* Garments depended on the weather


* Summer: little clothing
* Winter: woven yellow cedar and fur garment
* Ceremonial clothing decorated
* Hats
* Piercings and ornaments
* Piercings upon birth and ornaments (nose and ears)
* Flattened foreheads
* Tools
* Basketry, netting, weapons

Kwakwaka’wakw (Kwakiutl) - Religion, Medicine, and Art

* Multi-family plank houses
* Up to 100 feet long, decorated
* Canoes
* Clothing
* Garments depended on the weather


* Summer: little clothing
* Winter: woven yellow cedar and fur garment
* Ceremonial clothing decorated
* Hats
* Piercings and ornaments
* Piercings upon birth and ornaments (nose and ears)
* Flattened foreheads
* Tools
* Basketry, netting, weapons

Kwakwaka’wakw (Kwakiutl) - Today

* Travel by boat or seaplane
* Political Organization: town
* Elected council
* Potlatch
* “Underground” 1885 - 1951
* Public revival after 1951
* Kwak’wala language now taught in schools
* Revival of winter ceremonial
* Fishing and logging
* U’mista Cultural Society
* Treaty with Canada - in process

Great Basin - Geography and Environment

(Southwest excluding the West coast)

* 2 Major Deserts
*  Water does not leave the system; there are wetlands where water pools into


* Mojave (desert in Southern portion; rivers going across; arid)
* Great Basin (plateaus, gulleys, rivers)
* Varied environment
* 400,000 square miles
* Varied Environment
* Forest, marsh, alpine, grassy valleys, and arid areas
* 150 small mountain ranges

Great Basin - Overview

* Primarily hunter gatherers
* Southern Paiute and Owens Valley Paiute practiced small-scale agriculture
* Agriculture was not the main form of economics, mostly hunter-gathering as an economic resource
* It had intricate systems of irrigation and very productive resources
* Whites change in irrigation is what made the resources not as productive
* Defining resource - Pinyon Nut
* Ripen every two years, gathered and stored all winter
* Euroamerican contact late = more endurance of native cultures
* Settlers took a long time to settle across and into the coast
* Stereotypical view
* Harsh landscape = people just getting by
* But, people flourished in this region

Great Basin - Precontact

* Paleoindian: ? - 10,000BP
* Highly mobile, large game hunters
* The environment very different; archaeological evidence that it was a large plain and wetland area at this time
* Very different as the resources were arranged differently 
* Climate change
* Ancient Wetlands
* Archaic: 10,000 BP - Contact
* Desert conditions - desert cultures
* Danger Cave
* Different adaptations to take advantage of the resources at this time, vastly different from Paleoindian times

Great Basin - Contact

* Spanish and Horses
* Horses were used to raid the Spanish villages and this was an important trade item within other Great Basin tribes
* 1843 - John Fremont
* First land crossing to California - passing through Great Basin for the first part, but then many settled into Great Basin and fenced off areas for ranching and irrigated water
* This impact the environment a lot and depleted resources
* 1850s - 1870s
* Ranching & Conflict
* Conflicts between Native groups who were trying to exercise rights to water and resources vs. those who were settling there


* Pyramid Lake War of 1859
* Mud Lake Massacre of 1865
* Sarah Winnemucca - Thocmetony
* Bannock War of 1878
* Duck Valley
* 1846 - 1906
* 39 Treaties, 20 Reservations
* Once many settlers settled there; ranching increased and the water resources depleted 
* Ranching
* Many Indians had to work for the ranchers as their resources were depleted
* 1905 - Derby Dam
* These projects destroyed the ability to survive as they depended on the wetland environments as the environment became more of a desert

Great Basin - Political Organization

* Families and Bands (families in spring-summer, bands in fall-winter)
* The name came from the food source they exploited
* Grasshopper resource = grasshopper eaters
* Headman - Degwani
* Elected by consensus
* Tracked resources, mediated disputes, gave speeches
* Warfare 
* Against groups outside of the Basin 
* Horse = raiding plains groups
* Raided to get horses to trade with Great Plains groups

Great Basin - Social Organization

* Social Unit = nuclear and extended family
* Extended family groups moved around the landscape and got together into bands


* Patrilineal 
* Band = gathering of families in the fall and winter
* This was the time for socialization, ceremonial activities, etc.
* Marriage
* Courted when bands got together in the fall
* No ceremony
* Divorce - common
* Birth
* Named when apparently would survive
* Infanticide
* Puberty
* Menses (female); varied for males
* Division of Labor
* Flexible
* Men would help gather resources and make clothing, women would help hunt (basically each gender would help with the other’s main roles)

Great Basin - Economics

* Pinyon Nut (major food resource)
* Travel from grove to grove
* Headman’s responsibility to map out where to gather these Pinyon Nuts
* 2 Gathering Methods
* Brown Coning (harvesting when cracked open naturally)
* Green Coning (harvesting before ripe so other animals do not get to them first)
* Animals
* Mammals: mountain sheep, antelope, deer
* Reptiles: desert and wetland
* Insects: grasshoppers, caterpillars, etc
* Waterfowl: ducks
* Fish

Great Basin - Material Culture and Technology

* Housing
* Summer - Wikiup (wood frame covered with a brush), Dome structures
* Winter - Semi-Subterranean Houses
* Clothing
* Little to none
* Rabbit skin blankets 
* Moccasins and Sandals: important as the ground/sand got very hot in the summer sun
* Tule
* Rafts
* Matting
* Decoys
* Basketry: important for cooking and carrying things
* Bows: important for hunting
* Living junipers
* Tend juniper tree from the sapling and pruned it so it would grow straight, when big enough, they cut the bow out of the tree when it was alive and would continuously use the same tree for multiple bows

Great Basin - Religion

* Focus on Individual
* Spirit Helpers - dreams
* Importance in spirituality
* Spirits 
* People
* Animals
* Places
* Ceremonies
* Round Dance: used to thank the world for resources and promote world renewal of spirits and things being provided
* Get together in larger bands in fall; sing and dance rituals required for the renewal of resources
* Shamans
* Acquiring power through dreams, though the powers of Shamans are similar to other regions
* Death - South
* The soul is different from a ghost; a ghost is bad reminiscing of who you were and the soul is the essence (good) 


* Ghosts - feared
* Practices done to prevent ghosts from staying around and causing damage
* Ghost Dance, Sun Dance, Peyote Religion
* Ghost dance: In the late 19th cent where Great Basin leaders promoted the belief that came to them in vision that they would be reunited with the dead ones who were lost in the war against the whites
* Dances were done to help reunite them
* Transformed into a violent belief that they could take this land back from the whites, causing the US to fear and leading to massacres
* Sun Dance: traditional ceremony on Great Plains to sacrifice for resources
* Peyote Religion: have contact with the spiritual side of things; focus on a reconnection with indigenous culture

Great Basin - Today

* 45 Reservations
* Indian Reorganization Act - 1934
* The 1950s - loss of federal recognition 
* Termination period; Great Basin groups highly affected by thing
* Post 1964 - economy improves
* The government gives more support, funding, resources
* Still a lot of poverty on the reservations today
* Hunting and Water Rights
* Becuase lots of the water was reverted or they did not have the rights to it once settlers came in
* Still a big legal issue
* Grazing and Chaining
* Overgrazing by cattle, and chaining is ripping up many pinyon nut trees, both depleting resources important to their culture

Owens Valley Palute - Overview

(different from most Great Basin groups)

* Fixed territories
* Irrigation: not usually irrigation for farming, but it was to spread out water through flooding so natural crops could flourish more

Owens Valley Palute - Environment

* Owens Valley - 80 miles long and narrow
* Little rainfall, and many streams
* Diversity of plant life
* Marshes and Pinyon Nuts

Owens Valley Palute - History

* 1855 - A.W. Von Schmidt
* Cattle ranchers 1861: with this came more US military involvement
* Camp Independence
* In order to kill off the indigenous population in the area
* Los Angeles and water rights
* Need more water to fuel LA, so the water was funneled from the river under the mountains and to the coast; they still own many of the river rights of the Owens Valley 
* Owens Valley War

Owens Valley Palute - Politics and External Relations

* 7 bands - districts (prior to contact)
* Each had a district or territory, 30 permanent villages based around streams usually
* 30 villages
* Permanent
* Chief
* Limited powers
* Hereditary
* Mainly there for timing things (logistics)
* Warfare (Rare)
* Trade
* With California Groups (as they were super close)
* Salt: trade into California, gain sea resources from California to trade into the other Great Basin groups

Owens Valley Palute - Social Organization and Life Cycle

* Family -> Village -> Band
* Communal hunting, rituals, and festivals
* Bilateral kinship (Both mother and father’s side)
* Bands owned or controlled specific areas for pinyon and irrigated land
* Controlled areas that are recognized by a certain band harvesting a certain area of pinyon trees and other resources (they would rotate the areas)
* Pregnancy & Birth
* No taboos
* Puberty
* Ceremonies for boys & girls
* Celebrated coming of age and transition into adulthood
* Marriage
* No closer than third cousins
* Used to solidify trade relationships
* Sister exchange
* Marriage arrangement in which woman on one side would marry a man and that man’s sister would marry the first women’s brother
* Two siblings marrying two siblings from another family; solidifies families
* Death
* Burning songs, an annual mourning ceremony
* For all of those who died that year

Owens Valley Palute - Economics

* Hunter-gatherers
* Flood irrigation
* Pinyon nuts & acorns: big resources
* Acorns on the California side of things over the mountains
* Gotten through trade or expansion over the mountains
* Hunting
* Some communal
* Insects
* Pandora moth caterpillars - piagi
* On the pinyon pine trees, cocoons would be on these trees and would harvest trees upon them leaving cocoons and traveling down the tree
* Brine flies - kutsavi
* Larva within algae would be harvested by taking algae

Owens Valley Palute - Material Culture and Technology

* Houses
* Communal & family: lots of groups have communal homes for older single people and other community structures for activities
* Temporary housing (often to perform trade
* Clothing
* Deerskin
* Rabbitskin blankets
* Baskets
* Treasure basket
* Had baskets for collecting and seeding through seeds or collecting pinyon nuts
* Pottery
* Trading or selling
* Stone (mostly used for tools)
* Caching
* Obsidian

Owens Valley Palute - Cosmology, Religion, and Medicine

* Multiple origin stories
* Coyote & the Basket 
* Coyote was the father of or gained responsibility over a basket of all the children of the world, he peeked into the basket and opened the lid and the children jumped out the basket and spread throughout the world; the owens valley paiute were those that stayed in the basket
* Spirits & Supernatural Powers
* Wolf & Coyote
* Ceremonies - Fandangos
* Round Dance, Pine Nut Festival, Annual
* Performed in the fall when gathered in bands
* Pine Nut: important because of the dependence on nuts
* Mourning Ceremony (the Cry)
* Shamans
* Herb Doctor: physical doctors that used pharmacology and herbs that helped heal
* Spirit Doctor: spiritual healing

Owens Valley Palute - Today

* Owens Valley Ditches
* 4 Reservations
* Elected Councils
* Casinos: a major source of income for these groups
* Powwow, Museum, & Cultural Center
* New Ways to gain income
* Pine nuts and caterpillars
* Trying to increase their populations as they had decreased from a wrong suspicion that they were an infestation so they can keep using it as a resource

Chemehuevi - Environment and Overview

* Colorado River & Mojave Desert
* Culture different from other Great Basin groups
* Located on the other side of the Great Basin (Mojave desert)
* Creosote bush scrub

Chemehuevi - Politics and External Relations

* Bands
* Spokesman - 1 or 2 depending on size
* Headman
* Advisory: not necessarily a strong political force, but it was hereditary
* Father to son
* The group could reject someone if they weren’t prepared for the role


* Smart, kind, generous, wealthy 
* Dreams: an indicator that they were right through a position as seen within dreams
* Organized warfare (more frequent than other groups)
* Predawn raids: going into Southwest groups and killing people in the group before they could wake)
* Formal battles: rare; generally only a few died and a mediator would call a stop to the war once a few died
* War leaders, war dreamers, and archers
* Have dreams calling them to that role, dreams are important and the positive symbols were taken as being in the hand-in-hand combat, if you had bad dreams you were involved in tool building or other stuff

Chemehuevi - Social Organization and Life Cycle

* A rigid division of labor
* Men: war raiding, hunting, trading
* Female: gathering, plant processing, clothes
* Springs & hunting areas (songs)
* Systems of ownership considered through song are usually passed on
* Birth
* Umbilical cord - animal trails and anthills; anthill = women, animal trails = male
* Isolation and food restrictions
* Puberty - hunting (male) & menses (female) 
* Marriage- monogamous
* Becuase it formed an important family economic unit
* Death
* Mourning ceremony - the destruction of property

Chemehuevi - Economics, Material Culture, and Technology

* Hunter-gatherers
* After contact
* Floodplain agriculture
* Travel: extensive, travel all the way even to California, some based on trade but mostly based on desire to travel
* Basketry
* Willow; highly developed, waterproof, decorated
* Pottery 
* Pots, vessels, pipes, & toys

Chemehuevi - Cosmology, Religion, and Medicine

* Origin story
* Coyote & Wolf 
* Wolf trusted Coyote with all people in the pot and Coyote was careless and dropped the pot and all the people spilled out
* Songs - 4 main ones (marking ownership of different hunting territories)
* Important for appreciating resources and seeing that they continue to be plentiful


* Bird
* Salt
* Deer
* Mountain Sheep
* Ceremonies
* Ghost Dance, Round Dance, War Dance
* War dance for when they were going to go on trades
* Hunting
* Shamans - dreams
* Powerful ways of gaining power and envisioning things that would happen

Chemehuevi - Today

* Reservations (for different bands)
* Executive committee & tribal council
* Farming, sand and gravel, tourism
* Important economic endeavors today
* Resort & Casino
* Colorado River Indian Trbies (CRIT)
* Get together to promote culture and have a common voice to negotiate things with the government and promote indigenous interests
* Chemehuevi Baskets
* Willow is used to make these baskets; woven clockwise (like left-handed people would weave); wrapped with devils claw
* At the turn of the century, these baskets became a huge collector item

California - Overview

* In 1542, the population was between 300,000 & 700,000
* Hunter & Gatherers
* SE small-scale agriculture
* Language
* As a result of the many different migrations to California
* 23 families, 100 Languages, Dialects
* 60 Different Cultures
* Many have internal subdivisions as well
* Characteristics
* Acorns
* Large, sedentary populations
* Shell bead money; had a monetary system
* Basketry
* Each group had a different cultural identity

California - Environment and Geography

* 4 Geographic Regions
* North Coast Range: heavily forested and mountains
* Cascade and Sierra Nevada Mountains: lots of acorns there
* Central Valley: wine country
* Southern California: desert area
* Mediterranean Climate
* Mild (warm summers but not cold winters)
* Rain comes in the winter

California - Precontact

* Paleoindian: ? - 10,000 BP
* Archaic: 10,000 = Contact
* Differences in 4 geographic regions
* There were still migrations going on

California - Contact

* History of Native California
* 1542 - Juan Cabrillo
* First to come into contact
* 1697 - Jesuit Missionaries
* Had generally more positive relations with Natives but still tried to get them to go into their culture
* 1769 - Franciscan mission under Junipero Serra
* Replaced Jesuit
* Conditions were terrible and relationships were not good
* Served as slaves within the missions, did agriculture to provide for the missions and those military accompanying them
* Were not provided with enough food and their living conditions were not good; if trying to escape they would be taken by the military
* “Trapped in the system”
* Mission systems replaced by ranching systems, were still slaves for these people
* 1803 - Russians
* Fort Ross - 1812
* Forced to bring sea otter pelts and other marine resources for the Russians to trade, traded with Unangan
* Republic of Mexico (1824) and then the USA (1848)
* Upon the gold rush, meaning many settlers came in and depleted resources and forcing Natives to work on their ranches
* Not called slavery, it was called apprenticeship, but this is what it was
* Killed off so the land could be used for cities and gold
* 1850s  - 1860s
* Reservations: treaties often did not offer enough for those on the reservations as promised by the government…
* Impact of the Frolic
* Decimation up to 1906
* Genocide

California - Political and Social Organization

* Permanent or Semipermanent Villages
* Chiefs
* Kinship affiliation
* Chiefdom
* Craft specialists (those specialized in what they could build/collect)
* Complex economies (shell money added to the complexity of the economy
* Leaders (organized communities) 
* Small scale warfare
* Groups generally peaceful
* Lineage was an important identity form
* Clans & Moieties
* Totems from northern carry down into this region
* Moieties: A system of duality, two equal but different parts of the villages (different lineages do different focuses on certain tasks like hunting or gathering) provided materials for the whole village but each side work together to form a whole unit
* Kinship - inherited wealth
* Rank - from parents
* Classes were more prevalent and the rank was inherited through lineages
* Puberty
* Puberty was more important for males as they were going into political roles
* Marriage - exogamous, social status
* Marriage - within the same social status and used to establish relationships
* Death
* Mourning ceremonies

California - Economics

* Complex
* Craft specialists
* Stone & Bone
* Animal skins
* Plants
* Acorn: oak groves were cared for and prescribed burning was used to promote the growth of this resource 
* Highly Developed basketry
* Basketry is important (for collecting resources, used as plates, etc)
* Pomo Basket Weaver: some of the best basket weavers in the world, dreams are important as well as this weaving ability was passed down through her lineage

California - Religion

* Supernatural beings and powers
* Ability to go between the worlds
* Coyote: lots take the form of this animal
* Can also take the form of nonanimal beings 
* Ceremonial Cycles
* Cycles took to ensure world renewal


* World Renewal
* Toloache Ceremony
* Kuksu Cult
* Worship of Kuksu who is to return the world to its natural state if a proper ceremony is performed (lead by religious leaders of the group)
* Ghost Dance (adopted from Great Basin groups)
* 1870 & 1890

California - Today

* 1976 - Native American Heritage Commission
* To promote the preservation of these cultures
* 2008 - 106 Federally recognized tribes, 50 pending
* Many different tribes have their own entity and identity
* 2019 - California Apology
* Governor provided an apology for the genocides done within the past
* Talking Roads

Yokuts - Overview

* San Joaquin Valley
* Based in wine country
* 40 Independent Groups
* Each group has a different name, and territory, … each was not intelligible with other dialects
* Groups further away did not have similar languages
* 1860s
* Changed environment

Yokuts - Geography and Environment

* Valley with mountains to East, West & South
* Valley is well-watered, which was diverted for irrigation
* Kern and San Joaquin Rivers
* 1860s - diversion
* Changed environment from river diversion
* Hot/dry summers - semiarid winters
* But diverse and productive
* Environment managed
* Prescribed burns
* Plant tending
* Passive

Yokuts - History

* Yokuts in valley for 1,000s years
* 1772: 1st contact Spanish Troops
* 1776: Father Garces - a positive relationship
* Missions - relationship went downhill and they had poor living conditions
* The biggest impact was that they forced Natives to adopt less effective and productive ways of harvesting and hunting/gathering (farming was actually more damaging)
* 1846 - American Settlers
* Forcing them to adopt farming forced them into worse conditions and endangered their own survival within the area
* Ruined the productivity of the land/resources because they wanted to use European ways
* Reservations

Yokuts - Politics and External Relations

* Independent, large villages
* \~ 350 people
* 2 hereditary - one from each moiety
* Chiefs work in tandem but each has different roles
* Most important from Eagle moiety - hierarchy of moieties
* Duties
* Dates for ceremonies
* Settle disputes
* Authorize executions
* Host visitors
* Trade excursions
* Help poor - had a welfare system, where chiefs helped to distribute resources to the poor
* Also had visitors to foster trade relations

Yokuts - Social Organization and Life Cycle

* The nuclear family important but fell into the lineage system
* LIneage - Patrilineal
* Inherit father’s totem
* Members of 2 moieties do complementary work
* Labor divided by age and sex
* Birth
* Mom and dad food and labor taboos
* Mother undergoes food and labor taboos such as what they could not eat (often red meat or salt); spiritual role, but also a physical role to promote a safe labor
* Father had to follow the same guidelines
* Marriage
* Gifts = resembling commitment to each other
* Mother-in-law taboo
* After one year, the husband is not allowed to speak to the mother-in-law, don’t know why
* Divorce simple
* Death - people buried in the cemetery
* Annual mourning ceremony
* Fear of ghosts so names of the dead were never spoken

Yokuts - Economics

* Fishing - especially important for coastal and river systems groups
* Nets, baskets, hooks, corrals, and poison
* Used nets, and even poison from different plants that would stun the fish to help harvest fish easily
* Waterfowl hunting
* Decoys, snares, and bow and arrow
* Mammal hunting
* Communal drives where everyone came together to herd animals to kill more easily
* Plant gathering
* Acorns are not as important as other CA groups
* Insects and dogs - sometimes hunted

Yokuts - Material Culture

* 2 Types of Dwellings
* Single-family home - common
* Larger communal structure (different doors and own family space within the large home that was shared)
* Tule - Baskets, mats, & boats
* Stone - knives, tools, points
* Marine shell - disks, beads, pendants & money
* Shell money important for trade with other groups
* Clothing
* Not much

Yokuts - Religion and Medicine

* Religion = series of outdoor ceremonies
* Mourning ceremony - 6 days
* First fruit rites: during the first harvest of the season
* One for seeds and one for berries
* Hallucinogens: to promote visions (dreams)
* Shamans (used for good and evil)
* Male
* Supernatural powers and helpers
* Good or evil
* If used for evil, they were executed if it was to detriment of the group
* Treating the sick

Yokuts - Today

* 2010 Population - 6,273
* Casino - $ entering community
* More money into the community to promote the revival of the group and its culture
* More powwow is being hosted

Chumash - Overview and Environment

* San Luis Obispo to Malibu Canyon
* Coast, inland, and islands
* Coastal mountains have different resources, inland has grasslands, islands, and coasts use marine resources
* Cool with hot summers
* Average rainfall 15 inches/year
* Environment
* Coastal mountains
* Inland = Oak woodlands and grasslands
* Population \~20,000 in 150 permanent villages
* Early contact - with Spanish who were coming up from the south

Chumash - Precontact

* The area inhabited for at least 10,000 years
* Shellfish and seeds - the first primary resource
* 5,000 years ago - Acorns = primary food source
* 3,000 years ago
* Increase in population and cultural complexity
* 800 years ago
* Craft specialization
* Another population increase - 10 people/square mile
* By Contact - chiefdoms with a monetary economy, long-distance trade, and large villages

Chumash - Contact

* 1st Contact - 1542
* Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo
* Spanish Mission System - same story as elsewhere in California
* 1st mission in 1772
* By 1804 - 4 more built
* The largest was Santa Barbara 1786
* Horrible conditions
* Uprisings
* Several uprisings by Chumash, but they were either overtaken or they came to a conclusion to benefit both sides
* Chumash Revolt of 1824
* Secularized - 1834
* Became ranches
* Ranches had the same idea as the missions.

Chumash - Politics and External Relations

* Confederation - allied villages; mostly for trade 
* Chiefdom
* Wot - administrative chief (logistics)
* Paxa - ceremonial leader
* Leadership inherited
* Leadership, wealth, and status were hereditary 
* Communal hunting & gathering areas

Chumash - Social Organization and Life Cycle

* The base is Village & Stratified
* Chumash were the makers of shell money and therefore had much more wealth in general


* Elite - chief or highly skilled people with special crafts
* Middle class - those who gathered materials and participated
* Lower class - those who did not participate within the culture and were lazy and did not have anything to give or contribute
* Lineage
* Puberty
* Ceremonies for both boys and girls
* Toloache - vision and guardian spirit 
* Toloache (hallucinagen) is used to help gain contact with the guardian spirit in the vision
* Marriage
* Gift giving
* Death
* Cemeteries

Chumash - Economics

* Complex market system
* Shell bead $
* Craft Specialists
* Resources
* Relied on many marine resources, but also relied on land mammals such as deer
* Fish
* Marine Shellfish
* Marine Mammals
* Land Mammals
* Deer skin headdress
* Plants

Chumash - Material Culture and Technology

* 3 Types of Structures
* 1 type of House - large, round, and domed
* Main house was smaller or bigger depending on family size or status (chief had bigger houses to allow for visitors)
* 2 types of Sweathouse
* Large
* Individual
* Sweathouse covered in earth
* Boats - 2 Types
* Boats sealed with natural tar
* Small reed boat
* Large, plank canoe - Tomol
* Used to travel along riverway or along the coast
* Clothing
* Plant fiber skirts
* Basketry
* Cooking vessels
* Soapstone
* Miscellaneous
* Bone, Shell

Chumash - Cosmology, Religion and Medicine

* 3 Worlds
* Upper - Sky: supernatural beings live here
* Middle - Humans: spirits can inhabit this
* Lower - Home of Dangerous Beings
* Astronomy - helped to form connection with the supernatural
* Creation Story
* Ceremonies
* Fall harvest: celebrating resources given and helping to renew for following years
* Winter solstice: spiritually important (astronomy)
* ‘Antap: in charge of spiritual tracking and ceremonies, when child reaches age you would have to charge to have them involved
* Shamans
* Chumash Blessing

Chumash - Art and Recreation

* Rock Art 
* Often done by youth in their ceremonies where they are having their visions


* Supernatural world
* Animals and people
* Celestial objects
* Music
* Flutes, whistles, rattles, bullroarer
* Also the conch shell and other musical instruments
* Did not use drum
* Though important in many other groups
* Games
* Gambling on game outcomes 

Chumash - Today

* Cultural resurgence
* Reviving languages (and traditional practices)
* Active in local politics
* Consults on many different communities acting out to revive culture
* 2010 - 8,868 people
* Increase in population from the genocide
* Santa Ynez
* Federally recognized
* Through land grant by church in recongition of the land taken away by them; this is so they create a reservation for themselves
* Spirit Rangers