Unit 2

Biological Psychology

The scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural hormonal) and psychological processes. Also called neuroscience.

Nervous System

The body's system of communication that controls everything we do (breathing, walking, thinking, feeling, etc.) Includes brain, spinal cord, nerves.

Neuron

A nerve cell.

Soma (cell body)

Receives the message from the dendrites and calculates whether the message should be passed down the axon (the soma will only pass the message to the axon if it reaches absolute threshold).

Axon

The one way path that sends the message to the terminal branches. In many neurons, this piece is covered in myelin sheath.

Myelin sheath

A fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons; speeds up and protects the transmission of neural impulses.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

A disabling disease of the brain and spinal cord caused by the immune system attacking the myelin sheath. This cause communication problems between the brain and the rest of the body, and permanent damage to the nerves.

Axon Terminals

At the end of the axon, the last stop of the electrical neural impulse. These hold vesicles that contain neurotransmitters, which will travel across the synapse to stimulate the dendrites of the next neuron.

Vesicles

In the axon of a neuron; hold the neurotransmitters that will travel across the synapse to stimulate the dendrites of the next neuron. After re-uptake, the neurotransmitters reform new vesicles and wait for the next impulse.

Synapse

The miniscule space between the terminal branches of the sending neuron and the dendrites of the receiving neuron. Neurotransmitters cross this gap to pass on their chemical message.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap between neurons. Each dendrite has receptors for specific neurotransmitters.

Pre-synaptic

The ________ neuron is the neuron sending the message across the synapse, where it is received by the post-synaptic neuron.

Electro-Chemical process

The process of sending a neural message is electrical within the neuron (action potential) and chemical between neurons (neurotransmitters)

Conduction

The electrical part of the electrochemical process of neural transmission, in which a charge is sent down the axon of a neuron.

Action potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge sent by the cell body (soma) that travels down an axon into the terminal branches.

Refractory period

A period of inactivity after a neuron has fired. Another action potential cannot send until this period of recovery is over.

Resting potential

A polarized neuron that is at rest, with a slightly negative charge inside the axon. When the soma signals axon's membrane to let in positive charges, the action potential will begin.

Absolute threshold

Th level of stimulation required for the cell body (soma) to trigger a neural impulse.

All-or-nothing principle

A neuron either fires (if threshold reached) or it does not. It is always the same intensity - it can't fire just a little or a lot.

Neurotransmission

The chemical part of the electrochemical process of neural transmission, in which neurotransmitters are released from the vesicles in the axon terminals, crossing the synapse to trigger receptors on the dendrites receiving neuron.

Reuptake

After neurotransmitters are released into the synapse, they are reabsorbed into the sending neuron and new vesicles are formed in the terminal branches.

Excitatory neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters that INCREASE the likelihood that a nerve cell will fire an action potential. They have an excitatory effect on the neuron.

Inhibatory neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters that DECREASE the likelihood that a nerve cell will fire an action potential. They have an inhibitory effect on the neuron.

Acetylcholine (ACH)

(Excitatory)

Functions: Muscle function, Attention, Learning/Memory

Surplus of Achtylcholine

causes muscle spasms.

Deficit of Achtylcholine

causes Alzheimer's disease

Dopamine

(Inhibitory)

Functions: Motor movement, Mood, Arousal/Alertness

Surplus of Dopamine

causes Schizophrenia;Drug addiction

Deficit of Dopamine

causes Parkinson's disease

Serotonin

(Inhibitory)

Functions: Mood regulation, Hunger, Sleep

Surplus of Serotonin

causes Hallucinations

Deficit of Serotonin

causes Depression and mood disorders

Norepenephrine

(Excitatory)

Functions: Fight vs Flight, Arousal

Surplus of Norepenephrine

causes Anxiety

Deficit of Norepenephrine

causes Depression

GABA

(Inhibitory)Functions: Regulates sleep-wake cycles

Surplus of GABA

causes sleep and eating disorders

Deficit of GABA

causes seizures, tremors, Huntington's disease, insomnia

Glutamate

(Excitatory) Functions: Learning and long-term memory

Surplus of Glutamate

causes migraines, seizures

No deficit problems

Glutamate

Endorphins

(Inhibitory)Functions: Pain control, Pleasure, Stress reduction

Surplus of Endorphins

causes artificial highs, inadequate response to pain

Deficit of Endorphins

causes pain in body

Afferent neurons (sensory neurons)

Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

Efferent neurons (motor neurons)

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

Nerves

Bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Controls most functions of the body and mind. Made up of two parts: brain and spinal cord. Made up of all the nerves encased in bone in the skull and vertebrae.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Made up of all the body's nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord.

Somatic Nervous System

Part of the PNS that controls voluntary muscle movements. The brain's motor cortex sends impulses here.

Autonomic Nervous System

Part of the PNS that controls automatic body functions (lungs, heart, glands, etc.) Controls stress response.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Part of the autonomic nervous system that is activated in response to stress, controlling the "fight, flight, or freeze." responses.

Para sympathetic nervous system

Part of the autonomic nervous system activated during calm times or to calm a stress response. The "rest and digest" system.

Reflexes/ Reflex Arc

A neural circuit that controls reflexive responses without passing a signal through the brain. Sensory neurons route signals to interneurons in the spinal column which immediately activate motor neurons to send a reflexive response.

Endocrine system

The body's "slow" system of chemical communication (compared to the fast nervous system); a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

Hormones

Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues.

Adrenal glands

A pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epineprhine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.

Gonads (Ovaries/Testes)

The glands (ovaries in females; testes in males) that produce sex hormones(estrogen for women; testosterone for men).

Pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland (master gland). Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

Psychoactive drugs

Chemical substances that change he way the nervous system functions, causing changes in mood, awareness, thoughts, feelings, or behavior.

Therapeutic drugs

Psychoactive drugs prescribed by a doctor to address a medical condition.

Misused/Abused drugs

Psychactive drugs taken without medical supervision.

Stimulants

Ex: Caffeine, Nicotine, Cocaine, Amphetamines

Psychoactive drugs that heighten alertness, increase energy, and increase heart rate.

Depressants

Ex: Alcohol, Benzodiazepines ('benzos')

Psychoactive drugs that reduce feelings of tension, relax muscles, and slow breathing.

Hallucinogens

Ex: Acid, Mushrooms, PCP

Psychoactive drugs that bring on hallucinations, a sense of not being real, or paranoia.

Opioids

Ex: Morphine, Oxycodone, Heroin

Psychoactive drugs that relieve pain, cause drowsiness, confusion, and slow the breathing.

Marijuana

Ex: Cannabis

Psychoactive drug that changes sensory perception, impairs memory, and increases relaxation.

Agonists

A chemical(drug) that is the same shape as a neurotransmitter, so it binds in the receptor sites, mimicking and therefore stimulating a response that would naturally occur by the neurotransmitter. This can trick your brain into thinking there is more of the neurotransmitter.

Antagonists

A chemical(drug) that can fit in the receptor site but is not quite the same shape as a natural neurotransmitter. Thus the antagonist is blocking the site (NOT mimicking). By blocking the receptor site, this drug keeps the usual neurotransmitter from getting in and affecting the neuron.

Re-uptake inhibitors

A chemical(drug) that blocks the re-uptake of a neurotransmitter in the sending neuron, thereby increasing the amount of the chemical in the synapse.

Brainstem

The oldest part and central core of the brain, extension of the spine as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions.

Medulla Oblongata

The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

Pons

Sits on top of the medulla, coordinates movement, center of sleep paralysis.

Reticular Formation

Nerve network that travels through the brainstem (through the medulla & pons) and ends in the thalamus, plays an important role in controlling arousal.

Cerebellum

"Little Brain" in the rear of the brainstem; functions include coordinating movement and balance, processes implicit memories (muscle movement).

Thalamus

The sensory switchboard (Thelma Thalamus here - how may I direct your call?)

The brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; directs ALL sensory messages (except smell) to the proper location for final processing.

Limbic System

Neural system that wraps around the thalamus, associated with emotions and memory. Includes hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.

Hippocampus

Processes the formation of new memories (explicit memories)

Amygdala

Two Lima-bean sized neural clusters linked to emotion.

Hypothalamus

Controls the pituitary gland, responsible for activating fight or flight response & homeostasis (temperature, hunger, and libido)

Cerebral Cortex

Intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that makes up the four lobes, the body's ultimate control and information and processing center.

Frontal lobes

Lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking, muscle movements, making plans & judgments.

Motor Cortex

An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements (muscular movements).

Parietal Lobes

Lying at the top of the head and toward the rear (crown) ; receives sensory input for touch and body position.

Somatosensory Cortex (Sensory Cortex)

an area at the front of the parietal lobes that receives and processes sensations of touch and movement from your body

Occipital Lobes

At the back of the brain - important for vision

Temporal Lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

cortex

outer region of an organ

Broca's area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Broca's aphasia (expressive aphasia)

condition resulting from damage to Broca's area, causing the affected person to be unable to speak fluently, to mispronounce words, and to speak haltingly

Wernicke's area

a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

Wernicke's aphasia (receptive aphasia)

impaired auditory reception; speech may be fluent but is often meaningless or nonsensical

plasticity of the brain

ability to reorganize and modify functions and adapt to internal and external changes.

neurogenesis

creation of new neurons in the brain

Lesioning

removal or destruction of part of the brain

split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga

Researchers who worked with split brain patients to examine hemisphere specialization.

contralateral control

each hemisphere of the brain controls the opposite side of the body

brain lateralization/hemispheric specialization

Specialization of function in each brain hemisphere