Psych Unit 3 Test

Developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

Maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

Critical period

an optimal period early in life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development

Cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Assimilate

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

Accommodate (Devt Psych)

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

Sensorimotor stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

Object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

Preoperational stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

Conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

Egocentrism

in Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view

Theory of mind

people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states — about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict

Concrete operational stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

Formal operational stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Scaffold

a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors

Stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

Attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to their caregiver and showing distress on separation

Imprinting

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life

Temperament

a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

Basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

Authoritarian parenting style

parenting style that is coercive, and which imposes rules and expects obedience

Permissive parenting style

parenting style that is unrestraining, and which makes few demands, sets few limits, and uses little punishment

Negligent parenting style

parenting style that is uninvolved and is neither demanding nor responsive, careless, inattentive, and does not seek a close relationship with their children

Authoritative parenting style

parenting style that is confrontative, both demanding and responsive, and exerts control by setting rules, but especially with older children, they encourage open discussion and allow exceptions

Menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

Cross-sectional studies

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time

Longitudinal studies

research that follows and retests the same people over time

Sex

in psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male and female

Gender

in psychology, the socially influenced characteristics by which people define boy, girl, man, and woman

Aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally

Relational aggression

an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person’s relationship or social standing

X chromosome

the sex chromosome found in both males and females. Females typically have two of these; males typically have one. One of these from each parent produces a female child

Y chromosome

the sex chromosome typically found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child

Testosterone

the most important male sex hormone. Both males and females have it, but the additional supply of this in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period, and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

Puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

Primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

Secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

Spermarche

the first ejaculation (usually happens by about age 14)

Menarche

the first menstrual period (usually within a year of age 12 ½)

Intersex

a condition present at birth due to unusual combinations of male and female chromosomes, hormones, and anatomy; possessing biological sexual characteristics of both sexes

Role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

Gender roles

a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for males or for females

Sexual aggression

any physical or verbal behavior of a sexual nature that is intended to harm someone physically or emotionally. Can be expressed as either sexual harassment or sexual assault

Gender identity

our sense of being male, female, or some combination of the two

Social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

Gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

Androgyny

displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics

Transgender

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth-designated sex

Sexual orientation

an enduring sexual attraction toward members of one’s own sex (homosexual orientation), the other sex (heterosexual orientation), or both sexes (bisexual orientation)

Sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

Sensory receptors

sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli

Perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

Bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information

Top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

Transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret

Sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

Perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

Wavelength

the distance from the peak of one light wave or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic ones vary from the short gamma rays to the long pulses of radio transmission

Hue

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth

Intensity

the amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave, which influences what we perceive as brightness or loudness. This is determined by the wave’s amplitude (height)

Amplitude

the height of a wave

Retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

Accommodation (sensation)

in sensation and perception, the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

Rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are sensitive to movement; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond

Cones

retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-light conditions. They detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations

Optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

Blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind” spot because no receptor cells are located there

Fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster

Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory

the theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors — one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue — which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color

Opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green

Feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain’s visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

Pupil

adjustable opening in the center of the eye

Cornea

the part of the eye where light first enters

Iris

colored muscle around the pupil, controls the size

Lens

(transparent); changes shape to focus images on the retina

Audition

the sense or act of hearing

Frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second)

Pitch

a tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency

Middle ear

the chamber between the eardrum and the cochlea containing three tiny bones (malleus, incus, and stapes) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window

Cochlea

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses

Inner ear

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

Sensorineural hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; the most common form of hearing loss, also called nerve deafness

Conduction hearing loss

a less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sounds waves to the cochlea

Cochlear implant

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

Place theory

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated

Frequency theory

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch (Also called temporal theory)

Volley principle

the principle stating that neural cells can alternate firing, and can achieve a combined frequency above 1000 waves per second

Gustation

our sense of taste

Eardrum

thin membrane that causes vibration in the middle ear

Oval window

skin-like membrane that vibrates, making everything in the cochlea vibrate

Basilar membrane

base of the cochlea with the hair cells

Hair cells

neurons necessary for audition, on the basilar membrane, will send neural signals to the auditory cortex on the temporal lobes in the brain

Gestalt

an organized whole. Psychologists of this emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

Figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from the surroundings (the ground)

Grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

Perceptual adaptation

the ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field

Binocular cues

a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes

Retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth. By comparing retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance — the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object