Psychology Unit 2 AT #4

sleep

it is where we lose awareness of our internal state and our external surroundings

psychological benefits of sleep

it restores our mental functioning and can help us work through things to maximise our levels of psychological wellbeing

cognitive benefits of sleep

it assists with learning and memory. it strengthens neural traces necessary for learning and prunes neural connections for maximum efficiency

physiological benefits of sleep

it enables us to maintain a healthy body by removing waste products. it enables our bodies to recover by repairing cells and tissues. it enables growth and development. it is a way for the body to conserve energy

circadian rhythm

it is a biological process that regulates our sleep-wake cycle over a 24 hour period

brain structures involved in your body clock

the hypothalamus receives light signals from the retina and then directs the pineal gland or adrenal gland to release or suppress key hormones to regulate the circadian rhythm

role of the hormone melatonin in your circadian rhythm

at night time, the hypothalamus signals the pineal gland to increase melatonin levels to induce a period of drowsiness as we head towards going to bed

role of the hormone cortisol in your circadian rhythm

it is a source of energy that is released by the adrenal gland. levels peak in the middle of the day, and it plays a major role in our alertness by increasing our blood sugar levels

what is daydreaming

they are a naturally occurring altered state of consciousness, where attention is shifted from external stimuli to internal stimuli

Benefits of daydreaming

they can help us to plan ahead, deal with current problems, inspire creativity, reduce frustration and to fantasise

What are lucid dreams

they are vivid and realistic dreams that the dreamer is aware of and can control to a degree

How do lucid dreams differ from other dreams

lucid dreams occur somewhere between a normal waking consciousness and an altered state of consciousness and you know that you are dreaming.

when do night dreams occur

they mostly occur during REM sleep

cognitive benefits of night dreams

they help us consolidate short-term memories into long-term memories, and during them, our brain prunes neural connections, and dreaming acts as a filter to prevent brain overload

psychological benefits of night dreams

they help us to resolve emotional issues that we are exposed to during the day, thus restoring our mental functioning

psychological benefits of night dreams according to Freud

he believed that dreaming enabled our mind to deal with unconscious thoughts and desires, that are repressed from our conscious thought

REM

rapid eye movement

NREM

non rapid eye movement

the 8 hour sleep cycle

sleep cycles consist of stages of NREM and then REM sleep. each cycle lasts around 90 minutes and there are 4-5 cycles a night.

sleep cycles in terms of REM and NREM

from adolescence onwards we tend to only have deep sleep during the first two sleep cycles early in the night. the duration of each REM period increases with each cycle, and they occur closer together.

hypnagogic state

it is a transition period from being awake to being asleep, which only lasts 2-3 minutes and is characterised by a floating-like sensation and slow eye rolling movements

NREM stage 1 sleep

it occurs when we first go to sleep and is considered a light stage of sleep so you can be easily woken. we lose awareness of ourselves and surroundings but are still aware of faint sounds in the environment. it is common to experience the hypnic jerk during this stage

NREM stage 2 sleep

it is considered to be where we are first truly asleep, but is still considered a light stage of sleep, so you can be easily woken. we spend more time in this stage than any other stage

NREM stage 3 sleep

it is the start of the deep periods of sleep and it is difficult to be woken up. during these stages our metabolic rate, body temperature and heart rate are at their lowest and our brain activity is minimal. this is when sleep walking, night terrors and bedwetting is most likely to occur

NREM stage 4 sleep

it is the deepest stage of sleep, and our level of awareness is lowest. it is very difficult to wake a person, and if woken, they will experience sleep inertia and take a few minutes to orient themselves. it plays a key role in physical recovery from exertion

REM sleep

it is called paradoxical sleep because we experience REM paralysis, so externally the body appears calm and inactive but internally the brain is very active. nightmares and most of our dreaming occurs during this period

Distinguish between REM sleep and NREM sleep

in REM sleep internally the brain is highly active, but the body is paralysed. most dreaming occurs during this time. in NREM sleep, especially during stages 3 and 4 there is low brain activity and the body is not paralysed so activities such as sleep walking can occur

How much sleep do newborns need

they need approximately 15-18 hours of sleep and about 50% of this is REM sleep, due to the rapid brain development that occurs during this time

How much sleep do adolescents need

they need 8.5-9.5 hours of sleep per night. around 20% of their sleep is REM sleep and they require deep sleep to help with recovery from sustained endurance activities

How much sleep do elderly need

they only need around 6-7 hours of sleep per night and just under 20% is REM sleep. the elderly typically experience no deep sleep due to them not being as active

physiological symptoms of sleep deprivation

reduced body temperature, fatigue, slurred speech, increased sensitivity to pain, difficulty focusing eyes, and aches and pains in the body

psychological symptoms of sleep deprivation

a depressed or flat mood, anxiety, irritability, paranoia, difficulty concentrating, shortened attention span, impaired memory storage and retrieval and illogical thought

criteria to be labelled an insomniac

they experience one or more of the disruptive sleep patterns for more than 50% of the time over several weeks

sleep onset insomnia

it is a failure to go to sleep within 30 minutes of intending to go to sleep

sleep maintenance insomnia

it includes waking during the night and having difficulty falling asleep again or waking prematurely from sleep

hypersomnia

an excessive feeling of sleepiness during the day, despite having had more than an adequate amount of sleep the night before

symptoms of hypersomnia

they may experience constant daytime sleepiness, difficulty performing boring, simple long tasks, confusion and disorientation when waking and they often require 12 or more hours of sleep

sleep apnea

it is the temporary suspension of breathing for short periods, which usually ends with loud snoring or a body jerk, and can happen many times a night

causes of sleep apnea

it is caused by the failure of breathing centres of the brain, to signal the body to maintain normal breathing. it can also be caused by swelling of soft tissues in the upper throat or being overweight and having fatty tissue blocking airways.

nightmares

they are dreams with content that is frightening or upsetting and cause the person to wake up, and so they can be remembered. they usually occur during REM sleep so the body is immobilised, hence they can't be visibly observed

night terrors

they are less frequent but more terrifying than nightmares and they usually occur during stage 3 and 4 of NREM sleep, so they involve violent body movements and a state of panic. upon waking there is generally no recall of it

sleep walking

it involves walking whilst asleep and conducting routine activities. sleep walkers usually have no recollection of their night time activities

when does sleep walking occur

it can only occur during stages 3 and 4 of NREM sleep. due to being in a deep sleep, the individual usually speaks incoherently and is poorly coordinated

when does sleep talking occur

it is more likely that sleep talking will occur during stages 3 and 4 of NREM, but it can occur during any stage of NREM, as well as REM.

social cognition

it is how people process, store and apply information about other people and social situations, which is largely affected by our social schemas

the influence of Gestalt principles on our social cognition

when we meet a new person, we might categorise them into existing schemas, and ignore distinguishing features, due to the notion of gestalt principles that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

attribution

it is a process by which people explain the causes of behaviour and events

personal attributions

they are factors within the person such as their ability or personality that can affect attributions.

situational attributions

they are factors within the environment that affect attributions.

fundamental attribution error

it refers to the tendency to overestimate personal attributions and underestimate situational attributions when trying to explain the causes of behaviour

self-serving bias

it is a tendency to perceive success due to personal attributions and failures due to situational attributions

Tri-component model theory of attitudes components

Affect, Behaviour, Cognition

affect (The tri-component model theory of attitudes)

it is about emotions and the way an individual feels about an attitude object

behaviour (The tri-component model theory of attitudes)

it is about actions and the individual's intent to do something in relation to an attitude object

cognition (The tri-component model theory of attitudes)

it is about beliefs and the thoughts an individual has about an attitude object

cognitive dissonance

it occurs when a person acts in a way that is inconsistent with their attitudes which creates internal conflict

stereotyping

it is a collection of beliefs that we have about the people who belong to a certain group, regardless of individual differences among members of the group.

Why do we stereotype

they guide our attitudes to new people we meet, given the limited amount of information that we have on these people. they are often inaccurate and lead to stigma

prejudice

it involves having a negative attitude towards the members of a group based solely on their membership of that group.

Discrimination

it is a positive or negative behaviour that is directed towards a social group and its members

Blumer's 4 prejudicial features of a dominant group

a feeling of superiority, a belief that the other group is different and alien, a sense of claim over certain rights, statuses and resources, a perception of threat from members of other groups

sexism (forms of discrimination)

discrimination directed towards someone which is based on gender and the belief that their gender is inferior.

ageism (forms of discrimination)

discrimination directed towards someone which is based on their age and the belief that their age-group is inferior.

racism (forms of discrimination)

discrimination directed towards someone which is based on race and the belief that their race is inferior.

scapegoating (forms of discrimination)

it is defined as blaming others for actions or conditions that were not of their making

contact hypothesis (factors that reduce prejudice)

this is the principle of bringing people who are in conflict together and giving them the opportunity to communicate with the others, so as they get to understand one another, the conflict will subside

superordinate goals (factors that reduce prejudice)

the shared goals that cannot be achieved alone override the goals of individuals within the group, as the group's goals become more important

mutual interdependence

members of a group depend on one another to achieve each other's goals

example of fundamental attribution error

you are waiting for a taxi and someone cuts you off. internally you think, this guy is a real jerk. how rude. but you might not be aware of the situation that he is in a rush because his mother is at her death bed

example of self-serving bias

In a basketball game, if Linda sinks a difficult shot, she attributes it to her great eye and leaping ability. On the other hand, if she misses, she might claim that she was fouled or that there was a soft spot in the floor that led to a mistiming of her jump.

example of cognitive dissonance

a smoker who is mentally healthy and has a happy life, smokes a pack a day, even though they have an acute awareness of the health hazards of smoking which can create a sense of guilt

neutral stimulus (NS)

a stimulus that doesn't elicit the targeted response before conditioning

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that evokes a natural and unconditioned response

conditioned stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, through association with an unconditioned stimulus, now produces the targeted response on its own

unconditioned response (UCR)

a naturally occurring reflexive response produced by an unconditioned stimulus

conditioned response (CR)

a reflexive learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

baseline stage

NS when presented doesn't evoke targeted response

UCS reflexively evokes UCR

acquisition stage

NS and UCS are paired together, makes an association whilst the UCR is elicited

after conditioning

now, NS becomes CS and reflexively the CR is produced

baseline stage in terms of Pavlov's experiment

NS which is sound of the bell is presented and evokes no response.

UCS which is smell of food reflexively evokes an UCR of salivation

acquisition stage in terms of Pavlov's experiment

NS: bell and UCS:smell of food paired together a handful of times, so that the dogs make an association between these 2 stimuli whilst the UCR: salivation is elicited to seeing food

after conditioning in terms of Pavlov's experiment

now NS is CS and when CS: they hear the bell reflexively the CR: is to salivate to the ringing of the bell

distinguish between classical conditioning

the learning is direct and the learner is the one who is exposed to the stimulus. the response is reflexive and involuntary so the learner has been passive in the learning process

distinguish between operant conditioning

the learning is direct and the learner is the one who is exposed to the stimulus. the response is voluntary by a choice made by the learner so the learner has been active in the learning process

distinguish between observational learning

the learning is indirect and someone else is exposed to the stimulus. the response is voluntary by a choice made by the learner so they have been active in the learning process

baseline stage in terms of strongbow cider ad

NS: is Strongbow Cider when you see the bottle there is no response.

UCS: is the song which when heard results in UCR: the happy vibe you get from listening to a cool song.

acquisition stage in terms of strongbow cider ad

NS: Strongbow & UCS: song - paired together a few times on a TV ad resulting in the UCR: happy vibe from hearing the song.

after conditioning in terms of strongbow cider ad

now, CS: You see a bottle of Strongbow and reflexively the CR the desire to buy a strongbow is evoked along with the happy 'vibe'

baseline stage in terms of ripcurl attack

NS: ripcurl gear has no response

UCS: getting beaten up leads to UCR: anxiety as shown by shaking

acquisition stage in terms of ripcurl attack

NS: ripcurl gear and USC: getting beaten up paired together leads to UCR: fear to getting beaten up

after conditioning in terms of ripcurl attack

now, CS: ripcurl gear reflexively causes CR: fear presented by shakes to seeing ripcurl gear

REM vs. NREM sleep (Brain activity)

Our brain activity is minimal in NREM sleep vs. high brain activity during REM sleep

REM vs. NREM sleep (Movement)

We can move during NREM sleep vs. no movement during REM sleep due to REM paralysis

REM vs. NREM sleep (Sleep phenomena)

during REM sleep nightmares occur vs. during NREM sleep night terrors occur

REM vs. NREM sleep (Dream content)

REM dreams are more vivid and meaningful than NREM dreams which are more random and less meaningful

REM vs. NREM sleep (Eye movements)

REM - rapid eye movements vs. NREM - slow rolling eye movements.