Philosophy Questions and Theories Exam

What is philosophy?

Philosophy is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language.

What is mean by the Greek phrase “Love of Wisdom”?

Someone who pursues philosophy, then, was supposed to be someone who was seeking the attainment of wisdom.

What is the difference between knowledge and wisdom?

Knowledge: Knowing and understanding.

Wisdom: Expanding and applying.

What makes a question philosophical?

The concept of questions that don't necessarily have an answer.

Fields of Philosophy - Philosophy of Science

Concerned with the study of science and the use of science methodology to prove a statement or hypothesis.

Fields of Philosophy - Social and Political Thought

Concerned with governmental intervention, the justice system, and how one should regulate themselves.

Fields of Philosophy - Aesthetics

Concerned about the creation and concept of art and beauty and the purpose it serves to society as a whole.

Fields of Philosophy - Philosophical Reasoning and Logic

Concerned with analyzing and exercising communication and structural decisions in arguments.

Fields of Philosophy - Metaphysics

Concerned with the idea of existence and the meaning of life itself.

Fields of Philosophy - Epistemology

Concerned with knowledge at its finest and how we obtain it. Is it based on our environment or is it innate?

Fields of Philosophy - Ethics

Concerned with the idea of right and wrong, good and bad, and/or morals.

Demonstration - Card Trick

Things are easier to accept when it is understood how they happen. Someone once said: “\[They\], who has a why to live for, can bear with almost any how.”

Demonstration - Eggs

Dealing with life’s biggest problems first will help make life more manageable. The challenge will be to determine which is which.

Demonstration - Questions About an Object

Humans are curious, assumptions affect how something (problem) is understood. Quality of question affects the quality of answer (the better the question the more reliable the conclusion). Must be comfortable with ambiguity (comfortable with being open to more than one interpretation). It is important to have an open mind to revisit prior assumptions.

Demonstration - Tools

The more knowledge and skills of problem solving a person posses the more able he/she is to solve life’s problems. If the only tool you have is a hammer then all your problems look like nails.

Demonstration - Doing Something with Something

How one perceives the purpose of an item affects how one uses it.

What conclusions did we come to about why the study of philosophy matters?

Philosophy itself has many different aims to make it matter, involving wisdom and knowledge into its ideologies. By diving into philosophy, a person can work towards the final stage of self actualization.

What is soldier mindset?

Adrenaline is elevated and actions come from reflexes to protect yourself and defeat the enemy. Rooted in emotions like defensiveness. **Motivated reasoning: Trying to make some ideas win and others lose; the drive to attack or defend ideas.**

What is scout mindset?

Not to attack or defend, to understand. Going out to map terrain and find obstacles. Focus on accuracy. Try to see evidence as objectively as they can. Open, have values, test your own beliefs, open to any and all answers. **Trying to get an accurate picture of reality, even when that’s unpleasant or inconvenient.**

What is mean by the term tension (cognitive dissonance)?

Contradictions between the beliefs that one holds.

What are you views on Socrates statement the “unexamined life was not worth living”?

A life that was not appreciated or analyzed was not worth living to begin with.

What is self-actualization, and how does Maslow think it can be achieved?

The complete use and exploitation of one's talents, abilities, and potentialities, among other things. In order to achieve this state of personal fulfilment, the person must first satisfy the preceding needs.

What is illustrated by the “*Allegory of the Cave*”?

Characters can free themselves from intellectual darkness through enlightenment and the bravery to experiment with new ideas.

What is illustrated by the Thought Experiment “*Ship of Theseus*”?

It raises the question of whether an object that has had all of its components replaced remains fundamentally the same object.

What philosopher wrote “*The Good Brahman*”?

Voltaire

What is the main idea in the “*The Good Brahman*”?

That a life of blissful ignorance is not better than a life full of examination and suffering.

What is the “*Prisoners Dilemma*” and what lesson does it offer if everyone placed their personal self-interest above others all the time?

A parable for the difficulty of solving collective action problems. By acting in their own self-interests, the metaphorical prisoners find themselves with a greater penalty than they would face if they had worked together.

What philosopher wrote *“it is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied, better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied”*, and what did he mean by it?

John Stuart Mill wrote it. He believed that happiness is the aim of whatever we do; however, happiness does not mean pleasure. It also aims to prove that a person would not choose to be anything else satisfied aside from itself instead of selecting another animal.

What is first order language?

Refers to logic in which the predicate of a sentence or statement can only refer to a single subject.

What is second order language?

If it has, in addition, variables that range over sets, functions, properties or relations on the domain of discourse.

What were the main connections from the Peaceful Warrior?

Dan received guidance from Socrates to learn that ignorance is not bliss and how important wisdom can be.

How is the Greek word *“logos”* translated?

Reasoned speech.

Why is logic important (does logic guarantee the “’correct’ answer?)?

Logic is important because it leads to important perceptions of the situations around us. Logic does not always guarantee the correct answer.

What is the pattern for deductive reasoning?

Big Picture → Small Picture

What is the pattern for inductive reasoning?

Small Picture → Big Picture

What is meant by the term “logical contradiction”?

Something cannot be and not be.

What is conditional language / a conditional statement?

1. The “THIS" part is the antecedent
2. The “THAT” part is the consequent
3. A conditional statement does not assert the consequent; it asserts only that if the antecedent is true, then so is the consequent.

Example of a conditional Statement: "*If* you can hear me, *then* you are alive”

What elements exist in a basic syllogism?

2 premises

* Major Premise
* Minor Premise

1 conclusion

What is a fallacy?

Occurs where the information offered to support a conclusion does not support that particular conclusion.

What is a Group A fallacy?

Argument focuses on People/Groups (5). Examples include: Attack on the person, appeal to tradition, attack on the motive, appeal to popularity, straw man.

What is an attack on the person fallacy? (Group A)

Attacking something personal about the arguer rather than the argument.

What is an appeal to tradition fallacy? (Group A)

Supporting a practice or view because it has been practiced or held for a long time.

* “that’s how we were raised… and we turned out fine”

What is a bandwagon fallacy? (Group A)

Supporting something or opposing it based on the numbers that support it.

* “Everybody’s doing it…”

What is a straw man fallacy? (Group A)

Misrepresenting another’s argument as a means to make it easier to defeat it

* Changing facts or their meaning or their emphasis to undermine a position or argument

What is an attack on the motive fallacy? (Group A)

Focusing on the intentions rather than the actions or suggesting a person holds their position because of their personal circumstances.

* “Where you sit influences where you stand”
* As in any rich person’s views on the economy are attacked because they must just be trying to benefit themselves

What is a Group B fallacy?

Structure of argument. Examples include: Appeal to ignorance, begging the question, equivocation, loaded term, slippery slope.

What is an appeal to ignorance fallacy? (Group B)

Claiming something is true because it has not been proven false.

* “Since no one has proven that god does not exist, god must exist”

What is a equivocation fallacy? (Group B)

Equating 2 things that have different (unsupported) meanings/values and then extending that meaning to a conclusion.

* Really exciting novels are rare, and rare books are expensive. So, really exciting novels must be expensive.

What is a slippery slope fallacy? (Group B)

Attacking a conclusion or an argument because of a possible (even if improbable) outcome linked to a series of events.

* So, it’s not the initial situation with which one takes issue, but another one that may result

What is a begging the question fallacy? (Group B)

Asserting an unsupported proposition as the basis for a conclusion.

* Lying is wrong and all liars should be punished

What is a Group C fallacy?

Ambiguity. Examples include: Accident, converse accident, composition, decomposition.

What is a composition fallacy? (Group C)

Drawing the conclusion about a whole based on the features of its parts.

* “You like Chocolate ice cream, pickles and chicken: so you will love this Chicken-pickle-ice cream salad”

What is a decomposition fallacy? (Group C)

A feature or property of the whole is wrongfully ascribed to its parts.“

* Steven’s parents live in a fancy condominium complex so their apartment must be fancy”

What is an accident fallacy? (Group C)

Asserting that one should always follow a rule in ALL situations ignoring a valid exception that would excuse not following a rule.

* “Hey, you know the rule, tidy your room.  Don’t talk to me about the fire in the corner.  Just get that room cleaned up.”

What is a disjunctive syllogism?

An either statement. The major premise presents a choice that makes it possible for both to be true. Minor premise denies one of the choices, the conclusion accepts the remaining option.

* Either A or B is a C
* A is not a C
* Therefore, B is a C

What is a hypothetical syllogism?

The major premise supposes that something is true that suggests an outcome, the minor premise supposes that if the outcome occurs, another thing will happen. The conclusion states that if the major premise is true that the conclusion is also true.

* If A then B
* If B then C
* Therefore, if A then C

What is a categorical syllogism?

Deals with the category of a thing. Then there is a statement about the category of that thing.

* All A’s are B’s
* This C is an A
* Therefore, this C is a B

What is meant by the term “*ta meta ta physika biblia*”?

The books that come after the physics.

What is reality according to *common sense realists*?

Reality is what people perceive under normal circumstances. Things we perceive are representations of thing, but are in fact those things objects themselves (the actual thing)

What is it that makes up reality for *idealists*, such as George Berkeley?

Reality is related to the mind that the “external world” is not independent of the mind (the external world is dependent on the mind) but the product of thinking.

What is it that makes up reality for *platonic realists*, such as Plato?

Reality exists independent of human and awareness and understanding. (A true reality that we are unaware of in the supernatural world).

__Reality = Ideal forms.__

__Ideal forms = timeless, unchanging, immaterial, perfect.__

What is it that makes up reality for *materialists*, such as Thomas Hobbes?

Reality = material/physical entities

Reality = matter and subject to the forces of physics

What is it that makes up reality for *dualists*, such as René Descartes?

Reality = product of mind and matter

Mind and matter have nothing in common but interact to produce reality.

What is monism and its implications?

**Reality = one all-encompassing thing**

**Particular things are an expression of the one thing (either material or mental)**

What term refers to the view that a *supreme being does not exist*?

\
Atheist

What term refers to the view that a *supreme being does exist*, but does not intervene in our lives?

Deist

What is a theist?

A person who believes in the existence of a god or gods, specifically of a creator who intervenes in the universe.

What does agnostic mean?

A person who believes that nothing is known or can be known of the existence or nature of God or of anything beyond material phenomena; a person who claims neither faith nor disbelief in God.

What is the *cosmological argument*?

An attempt to prove the existence of god by the fact that things exist.

* It assumes that things must have a cause, and that the chain of causes can only end by a supernatural event.
* In other words: Whatever exists must come from something else, so there must be a deity that caused the universe to exist.

What is the ontological environment?

* An *a priori* claim that god exists because…
*  if it did not exist, it would not be the most perfect being, 
* and if it were not the most perfect being, then it would not be God.

What is the argument from design?

An argument that the existence of order in  nature implies that there must be some supremely intelligent agent who is responsible for creating this order.

What did St Thomas Aquinas think about the existence of a supreme being?

God exists because:


1. Cannot go from potentiality to actuality(cannot be both mover & moved) 
2. Everything has a cause ∴ must be first cause
3. Greatest things in any group of things cause all things in the group

What did St Anselm think about the existence of a supreme being?

**God exists because:**

* **Something greater than which cannot be thought**
* **Something greater than which cannot be thought must exist in reality as well**
* **God cannot be thought not to exist**
* **To think God exists is to understand God exists**

What did William Paley think about the existence of a supreme being?

**God exists because:**

* **a creator must exist for anything that:** 
* **requires inventive skill to make**
* **has a design** 
* **has an end/purpose**
* **has a way to accomplish end/purpose**

What did Blaise Pascal think about the existence of a supreme being?

**Better to believe in god because…**

* **Most to lose if god exists and do not believe**
* **Most to gain if god exists and do believe**
* **Virtual neutral exchange if god does not exist and do believe OR god does not exist and do not believe**

What did David Hume think about the existence of a supreme being?

**Cannot be sure God exists because:**

* **have not seen or heard god**
* **Cannot presume a cause and effect relationship between god and universe**  
* **Cannot rationalize existence of god from design of universe**

What did J. L. Mackie think about the existence of a supreme being?

**God cannot coexist with evil because:** 

* **God cannot be wholly good and omnipotent if evil exists:**
* **If god is both omnipotent and wholly good then evil cannot exist**
* **If evil exists then god can not be both omnipotent and wholly good**
* **Therefore, if evil exists then god is either not wholly good or not omnipotent**

What did Sigmund Freud think about the existence of a supreme being?

**The idea of God is a problem for civilization to solve:**

* **Religion keeps people in an infantile state**
* **Fear of punishment not needed to restrain people restrained from doing hurt to another**
* **Different conceptions of God lead to different conception of what is morally wrong/prohibited**

What reasons did René Descartes’ give for concluding that he is a thing that thinks?

He believed that his existence was proven due to the fact he could think.

What ontological “problem” does the thought experiment a “Brain-in-a-vat” attempt to address?

It addresses the idea of our assumptions about the nature of reality and whether we can trust our perceptions to give us accurate information about that reality.

What did John Stuart Mill mean by a person is “a thinking intelligent being that has reason and reflection, and can consider itself as itself”?

He meant that a person can be self-aware.

What did Berkley mean by the statement an “object perceived is an object conceived”?

Once an item can be seen and understood, it exists.

What is the Turing Test?

A test designed to determine if something is a person or a computer. Asks the question: “Can a machine fool someone into thinking that it is a person.” *If so – passed Turing Test.*

What is significant about John Searle’s Chinese Room?

Computer performance can be mimicked using behind the scenes strategies from a human (the man in the room).

If you were David from the movie *AI*, which characteristic of personhood would make you a person?

Physical appearance, communication.

What is the problem with people designing the concept of personhood to ensure it reflects their values?

No concrete definition of a person can be created since there are varying beliefs.

What is the problem with not taking into account potentiality in any concept of personhood?

Wrong assumptions can be made.

What does it mean to say a being’s existence precedes their essence?

t's a philosophical idea that suggests that a person's essence, or nature, is not predetermined at birth but rather shaped by one's experiences and actions.

What is Daniel Dennett’s definition of personhood, and what problems come from defining personhood in this way?

Some people may qualify as persons at some points during life but not at others.

What is epistemology?

The theory of knowledge, especially with regard to its methods, validity, and scope. 

What is rationalism?

A belief or theory that opinions and actions should be based on reason and knowledge rather than on religious belief or emotional response.

What is empiricism?

The theory that all knowledge is derived from sense-experience.

What is priori knowledge?

What comes before. Innate knowledge.

What is posteriori knowledge?

What comes after, experiential knowledge.

What is Occam’s razor? How is it useful (or how is it intended to be use/applied)?

**The simplest explanation is often the best one.**

**Entities are not to be multiplied beyond necessity.**

**The Law of Parsimony: One should be extremely careful or thrifty with resources**

What is an epicycle and why is this approach to explaining phenomena a problem (remember Ptolemy)?

It is a small circle whose center moves around the circumference of a larger one. This is a problem because sometimes these theories are not used with science in mind.

What type of knowledge is acquired in the following scenario: “*You know that all swans are white. Then you see a black swan.  You now know that most, but not all, swans are white*.”

Knowledge through experience.

What is ethics?

Ethics is the study of right and wrong.

What is meant by the term School of Thought?

A school of thought is a set of ideas or opinions about a matter that are shared by a group of people.

What is the school of thought absolutism?

A universal moral code should determine right and wrong. Everyone should follow this code regardless of the consequences.