KNES 191A

Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy

“ A cutting open” deals with the structures (morphology) of body part. THE WHERE!

Parathyroid Hormone

Stimulates osteoclast activity, causing calcium to be released from its storage site, the skeletal system. PTH further increases the rate of calcium absorption at the small intestine and decreases the rate of excretion of calcium ions at the kidneys.

Calcitonin

Aids in deposition of calcium in the bone by inhibiting osteoclastic activity while osteoblastic activity continues.

Estrogens and Androgens

Play a role in the stimulation of osteoblastic activity and the synthesis of bone matrix.

Osteoporosis (genetic factors)?

Race, sex, family history, and body size.

Osteoporosis (nutritional factors)?

Low calcium intake, excessive alcohol consumption, and consistently high protein intake

Osteoporosis (lifestyle factors)

Lack of physical activity, smoking, and inadequate levels of estrogen (related to delayed menarche, amenorrhea, or an early menopause). 

Three types of fibrous joints?

Suture, Syndesmosis, Gomphosis

Suture

Fibrous joint: Frequently serrated edges of articulating bones, separated by a thin layer of fibrous tissue; no movement

Syndesmosis (fastened with a band)

Fibrous joint: Articulating bones bound by a interosseous ligament; slight movement; e.g. joints between radius-ulna

GOMphosis (peg-and-socket joint)

Fibrous joint: Periodontal ligament binding teeth into dental alveoli of bone; NO movement

Physiology

Considers the functions of these parts; what do they do, and HOW do they do it?

Homeostatic Set Points:

98.6 homeostatic set points for body temp, below 100 for blood sugar, heart rate at rest 60 beats

Define: Contralateral

Referring to the opposite side of the body

Define: Ipsilateral

Referring to same side of body

The human body has levels of structural organization. All materials are composed of…

Chemicals.

At the simplest level, the human body is composed of____, the ultramicroscopic building blocks of matter.

Atoms.

Two or more atoms combine to form____

Molecules

Molecules are typified by______

Water, Sodium Chloride, Proteins, Carbohydrates, and Lipids

Small molecules may combine to form LARGER molecules______

Macromolecules

If the ATOMS COMBINED are different, the resulting structure is referred to as a

Compound.

The association of molecules with one another yields the next level of organization

The cell.

The cell is the ______ of living things.

Fundamental unit

 The cell is the basic unit of structure and function (i.e., the cell is the basic unit of ______________

Anatomy and Physiology

The Cellular level has SUB cellular structures______-

Nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, and lysosomes. 

All cells contain structures called _______ that carry on specific activities. 

Organelles

Cells are organized into layers or masses working together to perform one or more specific functions. Such a group of cells forms a ______. 

Tissue

Groups of organs that function closely together comprise ________ have a common function or set of functions.

Organ systems.

The Cellular Level Order

Chemical Level

Cellular Level

Tissue Level

Organ Level

Organ System

Organismal Level

Definition: Organization

Parts have specific relationships interact to perform functions

Definition: Metabolism

Sum of all chemical processes taking place in an organism; stated differently, metabolism is the total of all energy transformations in the body

Definition: Responsiveness

Sense changes in the internal or external environment and make the necessary changes. 

Definition: Movement

Gross (the whole body) or internal (individual organs, single cells, structures inside cells).

Definition: Growth

Increase size of existing cells, or new cells, or both; increase of material between cells

Definition: Reproduction

Formation of new cells or new organisms

Definition: Respiration

Obtain oxygen - use it to release energy; remove gaseous waste 

Definition: Digestion

Breakdown food into simpler forms 

Definition: Absorption

Passage of substances through certain membranes 

Definition Circulation

Movement of substances within the body in body fluids

Definition: Assimilation

Change absorbed substances into chemically different forms

Definition: Excretion

Removal of waste products

Most body parts and their functions help to maintain the life of the organism. Life requires certain factors from the environment: 

Water, Food, Oxygen, Heat and Pressure

The __________ of these factors are important. For survival, the concentration of water and oxygen must be regulated within the organism and nutrients must be correct and in adequate amounts.

Quality and Quantity

Definition: The steady-state of equilibrium existing in the body and the maintenance of this state

Homeostasis

These mechanisms are ________________. Mechanism receives signals (feedback) about changes AWAY from the normal set point and causes reactions that tend to RETURN conditions to normal.

Self- regulating feedback systems.

Homeostatic Mechanisms Order:

Set Point

Stimulus

Receptors

Control Center

Effectors

Response

REPEAT

Definition: Stimulus

Any disruption resulting in a change to the set point

Definition: Receptors

Monitor stimuli and send that information in the form of nervous impulses or chemicals to the control center

Definition: Control Center

After Evaluating input from receptors, will issue output commands in the form of nervous impulses or chemicals (hormones)

Definition: Response

The output from the control center results in the effectors producing a response restoring the set point.

How many bones does the human body contain?

206

Skeletal System Function_____

Bones protect the body

Protect the organs

Store lipids and calcium

Serve as sites of blood cell formation

Support and Protection Bones gives____

Shape to structures, provide support for the body’s weight, and protect internal structures such as the brain, lungs and heart.

Body Movement Bones and muscles______

Interact as mechanical devices called levers in the production of body movement.

Blood Cell Formation_____

Hemopoiesis or Hematopoiesis

Lever - 4 components

Rigid bar or rod

Pivot or fulcrum on which the bar turns

An object that is moved against resistance 

A force that supplies energy for the movement of the bar 

Epi- means?

Upon or next to

Peri- Means?

Around

Endo- Means?

Within

How do you determine in a bone if it’s an adult?

If the yellow marrow is present

Epiphyseal plates/disc (growth plates)

Open Epiphyseal Plate:

The bone are continuing to grow and longer

Closed Epiphyseal Plates:

The growth plates stop growing

True or False: Do Spongy/Cancellous Bone mean the same?

True

True or False: Compact Bone is stronger > Spongy Bone

True

Articulations Means?

Joints

Describe Articular Cartilage:

Super Strong

Really smooth

Lacks vascularity

Describe Periosteum:

Super Strong

Not Smooth

Has Nervous Supply

Highly Vascularity

Osseous Tissue Contains:

OsteoCytes

OsteoBlasts

OsteoClasts

Order of the Cellular Level:

Osteoprogenitor Cell

Osteoblast

Osteocyte

Osteoclast

ENDOcytosis

The cell takes in biological molecules and particulate matter by forming new vesicles from the plasma membrane. It allows cells to bring substances into their interior.

EXOCytosis

Active transport process by which materials are secreted or expelled from a cell. Moves large molecules and waste out of a cell and into the extracellular space.

What is Bone Remodeling?

The resorption (resorb) and deposition (necessary for homeostasis) the bone

Define Catabolism:

The breakdown of organic matter, usually with the release of energy; if energy is released, it’s this reaction.

Define Anabolism:

The buildup of organic matter, usually requiring an input of energy; if energy is used, it’s this reaction.

What organisms require from our environment?

Water

Food

Oxygen

Heat

Pressure

Why is Water necessary for our environment?

Most abundant chemical in the body. Required for many metabolic reactions; often provides the environment in which chemical reactions take place; transports substances within the organism; important in regulating body temperature.

Why is Food necessary for our environment?

Substances that provide the body with necessary nutrients, some of which are used as energy sources, others are used to supply the raw material for building new living matter, while others help regulate vital chemical reactions.

Why is Oxygen necessary for our environment?

Used to release energy from food substances – this energy is used to drive metabolic reactions.

Why is Heat necessary for our environment?

Form of energy; product of metabolic reactions. Temperature is a measurement of the amount of heat. Generally, the more heat, the more quickly reactions occur.

Why is Pressure necessary for our environment?

Application of force to something. Air pressure, hydrostatic pressure, blood pressure,.... Necessary for breathing and blood flow.

How do the negative homeostatic mechanisms work?

Changes from the normal state stimulate responses in the opposite direction; these changes are considered negative.

It does NOT prevent variation but maintains variation within a normal range.

What is Homeostasis?

It’s associated with the relative constancy of the chemical and physical environment in the cells and the organism itself.

Human beings have about 70 trillion cells that form their own environment inside our bodies.

Anatomical Position:

Standing Upright, Facing Upward, Arms are at the sides, with the palms forward

Relative Position:

Used to describe the location of one body part with respect to another.

What is Sagittal, midsagittal, median or anteroposterior?

Refers to a lengthwise plane that divides the body into left and right portions. Midsagittal is used only when referring to the entire body

What is Coronal, frontal or lateral?

Refers to a plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior portions

What is Transverse or horizontal?

Refers to a plane that divides the body into superior and inferior portions.

Define Resorption:

Breakdown

Define Deposition:

Formation of new bone

Define OsteoClasts:

Function to resorb, or breakdown, bone tissue. They’re bone destroying cells

Define OsteoBLASTS:

Function to replace the bone as bone forms around them; they are bone forming cells

Define OsteoCYTES (see):

Mature osteoblasts, and are responsible for MAINTAINING the bone.

Define Matrix:

Of a bone that’s very strong as calcium salts are deposited around the protein fibers.

Define Lamellae:

A thin layer, membrane, or plate of tissue, especially in bone.

Rings of matrix in an osteon.

Define Trabecula:

Spongy bone contains networks of bony plates and rods, which are subject to compressive forces

____ meaning “singular”

“a”

____ meaning “plural”

“ae”

Define Lacunae:

Bone cells located in pockets. Narrow passageways through the matrix

Define CANALiculi:

Narrow passageways through the matrix, extend between the lacunae and blood vessels branching through the bony matrix.

Explain third class levers and provide one example from the body?

A force that is located between the pivot and the resistance

Ex: Eyebrow Tweezers, forceps, bicep curl and knee extension